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THE 



AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 



AN!) 



ORIENTAL JOURNAL. 



JANUARY-NOVEMBER, 1894 

VOL. XVI. 



s^mi n 



EDITED BY STEPHEN D. PEET. 



-^Z* 
«^^» 



CHICAGO. ILL. 
175 Wabash Avenue. 

■8q4. 



r 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Volume XVI.— 1894, 



CONTENTS OF JANUARY NUMBER. 

A Tusayan Paho, .... Frontispiece. 

Was thk Serpent Symbol Aboriginal? By Stephen 

D. Pcet --..-•- 15 

Characteristics op American Languages. By Daniel 

G. Brinton, ------ 33 

Palestine Exploration Fund. By Theodore F. 

Wright. ----- 37 

The Suastika and Allied Symbols. By C. Staniland 

Wake, ...... 41 

Prehistoric Pottery from the Middle Mississippi 

Valley. By Prof. James D. Butler - 44 

Japanese Art on Puget Sound. By James Wicker- 
sham, ...... 47 

Editorial. — Wheels and Lightning Rods. Illustrated. 50 

Likenesses in Paleolithic Relics. By Clarence B. 

Moore, ...... 52 

Editorial Notes.— Prehistoric or Proto-historic; An- 
cient Cherokee Customs, - - - - 5a 

Book Reviews. — The Gilded Man, by A. F. Bandelier; 
Comparative Philology of the Old and New Worlds 
by R. P. Greg; Myths of Greece and Rome, by H. 
A. Guerbcr; The Mark in Europe and America, 
by Enoch Bryan, ----- 54 



\ 4 • * I ■' *w 



iv TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CONTENTS OF MARCH NUMBER. 

The old Bear and Medicine Pipes, - - Frontispiece 

The Origin of the Iroquois. By Rev. W. M. Beau- 
champ, ...... 61 

The Choctaws in Mississippi. By John A. Watkins. 69 

Japanese Art on Puget Sound. By James Wicker- 
sham. II Paper, - 78 

Craft Symbols and Religious Emblems. By Stephen 

D. Peet. Illustrated, - - - 83 

Polynesian Types in Mexico and Central America. 

By Professor Cyrus Thomas, ... o# 

Archeology of the Saginaw Valley. By Harlan I. 

Smith, - - - 106 

Palestine Exploration Fund. By Theodore F. Wright 109 

Correspondence.— The Mutilation of Archarologic 
Finds, by Perry M. Van Kpps; Accadian and Tur- 
anian, by D. G. Brinton; Long- heads and Short- 
heads, by Wil lard H. Davis; The Terrace or Stepped 
Figure, by Dr. Washington Matthews; Monitor 
Pipes in Nova Scotia, by George Patterson. - - 1 10 

Ethnographic Notes.— Dr. Julius Platzman; The New 
Globus; Hewitt on Polysynthesis; Omaha Indian 
Music; Bandelier's Final Report; Dr. 1. Walter 
Fewkes; Explorations in South America; Literature 
on Buddhism; Hungarian Ethnography; "Two In- 
scriptions of Lemnos," by Albert S. Gatschet. - 115 

Notes on Comparative Reunions.— Assyrian Sculp- 
tures; Explorations in Egypt; Animal Worship; Im- 
mortality of the Soul; Ancient Temples in China; 
Religions of China. - - - - 120 

Book Reviews. - The Character and Influence of the Fur 
Trade in Wisconsin, by FrcdericK J. Turner; His- 
tory of Amulets, Charms and Talismans, by Michael 
J. Kodkinson; The Ancient Pit-dwellers of Yczo, 
Japan, by Romyn Hitchcock; Legends of the Mic- 
macs, by Rev. Silas T. Rand; The Pa-lu-lu-kon-ti, 
by J. Walter Fewkes and A. M. Stephen; Certain 
Personages who appear inaTusayan Ceremony, by 
J. Walter Fewkes; Native Calendars of Central 
America and Mexico, by D. G. Brinton; Was 
America Peopled from Polynesia? by Horatio Hale. 121 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CONTENTS OF MAY NUMBER. 

Panel in the Temple at Halabede, India, Represent- 
ing Ganapatti, the Elephant-headed God, Frontispiece 

Migrations of the Algonkins. By C. Staniland Wake. 127 

The Salmon Wife — A Kwakiutl Legend. By Gardner 

C. Tcall. ...... 140 

Culture Heroes and Deified Kings. By Stephen D. 

Pcct. Illustrated. ----- 143 

An Obstetrical Conjuration. By D. G. Brinton, M. D. 166 

Egyptological Notes. By William Copley Winslow, 

Ph. D., LL. D. 168 

Palestine Exploration. By Theodore F. Wright. 171 

Subscriptions to the Egypt Exploration Fund. - 173 

Editorial. — Was there Contact with Asiatic Countries? 

Was there an American Costume? - - 175 

Paleolithic Notes. - ... is 4 

Book Reviews. — World's Parliament of Religions, edited 
by Rev. John Henry Barrows, D. D.; Canada's In- 
tellectual Strength and Weakness, by J. G. Bouri- 
not, C. M. G., LL.1X, D. C. D.; Greece in the Age 
of Pericles, by Arthur J. Grant; The Indian and the 
Pioneer, by Rose N. Yawger; Louisiana Studies, by 
Alcee Fortier; Religion and Myth, by Rev. James 
McDonald; Spanish Pioneers, by Charles F. Lum- 
mis; James Evans, by John McLean, Ph. D.; The 
Land of Poco Tempo, by Charles F. Lummis; 
Historic Green Bay, 1634-1840, by Ella Hoes Ne- 
ville, Sarah Greene Martin and Deborah Beaumont 
Martin; Ancient Ships, by Cecil Torr, M. A. - 185 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CONTENTS OF JULY NUMBER. 

Ceremonial Procession in an Egyptian Temple, Frontispiece 

The Neutral Nation. By W. M. Beauchamp, - - 193 

The Nativity of Maize. By James Wickcrsham, 201 

Mimetic and Dramatic Element in Religion. 204 

The Aztlan Enclosure Newly Described. By T. H. 

Lewis, ...... 205 

Prehistoric Peoples of Japan. By Romyn Hitchcock, 209 

The Po-boc-tu Among the Hopi. By A. M.Stephens, 212 

A Choctaw Migration Legend. By H. S. H albert, - 215 

SABiCANisM or Sky Worship in America. By Stephen 

D. Peet. Illustrated, - ... 217 

Egyptological Notes. By William Copley Winslow, 

D. D. LLD., 237 

Palestine Exploration Fund. By Theodore F. Wright, 241 

Correspondence.— The Cherokee Calendar System, by 
James Mooncy; The Maya Lauguage, by Cyrus 
Thomas, ------ 244 

Editorial. — The Zodiac and Orientation in America; 

Solstitial Orientation, .... 245 

Notes. Ancient City in Arizona; Field Columbian Mu- 
seum; Tacoma; Temple of Isis; Palcolithics; J. 
Walter Fewkes; Recent Finds, - - - 252 

Book Reviews.- Folk Tales of Angola, by Heli Chate- 
lain; A Mound of Many Cities, or Tcll-cl-Hcsy, by 
Frederick Jones Bliss, M. A.; Carticr to Frontenac, 
Geographical Discovery in the Interior, by Justin 
Winsor. -.-... 254 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. vtt 

CONTENTS OF SEPTEMBER NUMBER. 

A Contribution to Chacta History. By John A. 

Wat kins, ------ 259 

The Catawba Indians. By W. B. Ardrey, 266 

The Cuisine and Evolution. By R. G. Abbott, - 269 

Notes on the Kootenav Indians. By A. F. Chamber- 
lain. Second Paper — Linguistic Data, - - 271 

Transformation Myths. By Stephen D. Peet. Illus- 
trated, ...... 275 

Plant Forms on Mexican and Central American 

Tablets. By J. W. Harshberger. Illustrated. - 299 

ThE Ojibwa Cradle. By Harlan I Smith. Illustrated. 302 

Palestine Exploration Fund. Bv Theodore F. 

Wright. - - - 303 

The Stone op Cana. Illustrated, 305 

Egyptological Notes. By William Copley Winslow, 

D. D. 306 

America Visited in Pre-Columbian Times, - 307 

Ancient City in Guatemala, 308 

Hieroglyphics and Pre-Ph<enician Script, 310 

Correspondence. — Aztec Creation Legends, by D. G. 

Brinton, - - - - - - 311 

Editorial. — What the Spade is Turning Up in the 
East; Sacred Wells in America; A Stamp Tablet 
and Coin Found in a Michigan Mound, - - 312 

Ethnographic Notes. — Garrick Mallcry; Picture Writ- 
ing; Frederick Kunz; Dr. Frederick S. Krauss; Dr. 
Franz Boaz; Zelia Nutall; Henry Carnoy; Zapotec 
Language. By Albert S. Gatschet, - 314 

Notes. — Mastodon Remains; Antiquity of Language; 
Geologists and Deluges; The Copper Age; Prof. 
Virchow; Astronomy Among the Incas; Norse 
Remains, - - - - - 317 

Book Reviews. — The Iron-Bearing Rocks of the Mesaba 
Range in Minnesota, by J. Edward Spun*; Notes on 
the Ancient Mexican Calendar System, by Zelia 
Nutall; Nebraska Historical Society; Scarabs, by 
Isaac Meyer, LL. B.; History of the Scandinavians, 
by O. N. Nelson, 320 



viii TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CONTENTS OF NOVEMBER NUMBER. 

Origin of the Indians. — The Polynesian Route. By 

James Wickcrsham, - 325 

On Certain Morphologic Traits op American Lan- 
guages. By Daniel G. Brinton, M. D., LL.D., 
D.S.C, 336 

The Worship of the Rain-God. By Stephen D. Peet. 

Illustrated, - - - - 341 

Enclosures in Wisconsin. By T. H. Lewis. Illus- 
trated, ----- 357 

Palestine Exploration Fund. By Theodore F.Wright, 361 

Editorial.— A Novel Interpretation of the Great Ser- 
pent Mound; The Serpent the Symbol of the 
Rain-Cloud; The Next Volume, - 363 

Egyptological Notes. By William (\ Winslow, D. D„ 

LL.D., 380 

Notes on Comparative Religions, - 382 

New Discoveries. Find of Mound-builders, Relics; 
Indian Skeleton?*; An Fxpedition to Yucatan; The 
Babylonian Expedition; Frauds in Michigan, - 383 

Book Reviews, Genesis and Semitic Traditions, by 
John D. Davis; Studiet in < >riental Social Life and 
Customs, by II. Clay Trumbull; Certain Sand 
Mounds of the St. John's River, Florida, by Clar- 
ence B. Moore; Life in Ancient K^ypt. by Adolph 
Krman, translated by II. M. Tirard; Copper from 
the Mounds of the St. John's River, by Clarence 
B. Moore; I he Story of the Civil War. by John 
Cod man Ropes; Woman's Share in Primitive Cul- 
ture, by Otis Tufton Mason, Ph.D., 384 



THE 



^mcxxc&n ^ntxqwdxxntx. 



Vol. XVI. January, 1894. No. 1. 

ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS. 

By Cyrus Thomas. 

The hope of ultimately solving the great prohlems of the pre- 
Columbian times of our continent is perhaps as lively to-day as 
in former years. But, with the vast increase ol knowledge in 
recent years in reference to the data bearing on these quest iors, 
* modification of the hope entertained has taken place. While 
no thought any longer exists of ascertaining the exact date of 
or any definite particulars in regard to the migration by which 
the western continent received its first settlers, yet there is a 
hope that the advance in scientific knowledge and methods of 
investigation, together with a more careful study of the data, 
will result in determining, in a general sense, the age in which 
this first introduction of population took place, and in deciding 
what race or races contributed to this population, and the prob- 
able route or routes of migration. 

The method of treating this subject has been changed from 
mere theorizing to careful, scientific analysis. The literary 
world, it is true, is now and then amused by the revival of some 
old, exploded theory, or the presentation of some new one, 
equally absurd; but allusion is made here only to those efforts 
which appear to be based upon some legitimate data. 

The tendency at present appears to be to base the tentative 
efforts in this direction on the linguistic evidence, leaving out 
of view the important aid to be derived from a careful study of 
the archaeological data bearing upon the subject, or referring to 
it only where it seems to corroborate the tneories based upon 
the linguistic evidence. This arises, in part, from the fact that, 
while the archaeological data relating to a large portion of the 
continent are tew, and archaeology has not, as yet, been reduced 
to a true science; on the other hand, the linguistic matrri.il, 
though not complete, is much more abundant and the treatment 



4 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

thereof reduced to true scientific methods. As the latter field 
affords greater promise ot reaching positive conclusions, it is 
more attractive to methodical students than the other hranch. 

Hut in order to reach conclusions most likely to stand the test 
ot future investigation, all the lines of research must be explored, 
and all the data obtainable, not only from linguistics, but also 
from archaeology, and all the various branches of ethnologv, must 
be brought to our aid. And we must follow, without being wed- 
ded to any particular theory, the legitimate conclusions reached 
by a careful study and comparison of the data thus obtained. 

Without referring to the numerous theories which have been 
advanced in regard to the origin of the aboriginal inhabitants 
ot our continent, I present the following suggestions in reterence 
to what would seem to be the most fruitful lines of research 
bearing on this question, though not relating directly thereto. 

If a careful comparison of the arc sological types and of 
the arts, customs, traditions and languages of the various por- 
tions of North America b« made, one with another, with special 
reference to the geographical distribution of types, it will lead 
to the conclusion that these belong, in a broad and comprehen- 
sive sense, to two general classes, the one pertaining to the 
Pacific slope, the other to the Atlantic. The dividing line be- 
tween these two great ethnological sections appears to be the 
extreme eastern range of the Rockv Mountain system, from 
about 55 north latitude to the Rio Grande, the former, or Pa- 
cific system, including all of Mexico and Central America. 

While it is true that there are manifest dirterences between 
the types and character of the archeological remains, and ot the 
aboriginal customs, arts and languages of ditlerent areas in each 
of these two comprehensive sections*; yet, when thine of the 
Pacific slope, which, ;»s we have said, includes Mexico and 
Central Ameiica, taken as a whole, are compared with those of 
the Atlantic slope, there is such an evident dissimilarity as to 
strike every one who makes the comparison. 

There is not an ethnologist nor, in tact, any close observer, 
who will fail to distinguish the elaborately carved totem posts 
ot the northwest coast, and the designs carved thereon, from the 
work of any ot the Atlantic tribes The method of superimposing, 
in carvings and statues, one figure upon another, usuiii\ com- 
bining human and animal, is a true Pacific type, found on the 
western Mope (exiept, perhaps, in California) fn»m Alaska to 
Nicaragua. The prominent Tlaloc nose ot Mexican ami Cen- 
tral American figure*, which has erroncouslv hem supposed 
to represent the elephant trunk, is but another form <>l indicat- 
ing tlie same idea as that presented bv the prominent bird-bill 
on the totem po*ts and in the figures of the tribe* ol the north- 
west coast Hut these are anomalies it found on the Atlantic 
slope. So we might speak of the labrets; ot peculiar forms of 
masks; the zig-zag lines in basketry and in the ornamentation 



ORIGIN OF THE IN DUNS. 5 

of pottery; the broad, square face figures, one above another, 
teen on the costume ol the Haica Indian, the Tsimshian and 
the Tlingit; the boats and houses of the north west coast, and 
the similar superimposed Tlaloc faces in the sculpture of the 
ruined temples and palaces of Yucatan. All of these are un- 
known to, or are seldom observed among the arts a fid customs 
of the Atlantic races, while on the contrary they seem to be, to 
some extent, but copies of the works of the South Pacific 
Islanders, especially those of the Melanesian and Polynesian 
groups. If we turn to the languages of North America, we 
find the same contrast exising between the families of the east* 
ern and western slopes. One of the latest writers on this sub- 
ject arranges his larger groups according to this geographical 
distinction; and he emphasizesjthis arrangement by the remark, 
that "There is a distinct resemblance between the two Atlantic 

? roups, and an equally distinct contrast between them and the 
acinc groups, extending to temperament, culture and physical 
traits." 

Thus we might, if space would permit us to enter into details, 
proceed to enumerate numerous types which have prevailed in 
the distant past or in recent times along the western coast, bnt 
are wholly unknown or comparatively rare on the Atlantic side. 

The distribution of linguistic stocks in North America and 
the indications of the lines of migration lead to the same con- 
clusion as that reached by an investigation f the other data. 
Notwithstanding the oft-repeated suggestion of some relation- 
ship between the Mexican tribes and the Mound-builders, yet 
no relationship whatever has been discovered between any of 
the Mexican or Central American stocks and those of the 
eastern slope north of the gulf of Mexico. On the contrary, we 
find the members of the Maya family extending from the Kio 
Panuco to the southern border of Guatemala; and those of the 
great Uto-Aztecan group scattered from the mountains of 
Nicaragua to the Columbia river. The supposition advanced 
by some writers that the Shoshone group, and hence the 
Azetcan, had its origin east of the mountains, is purely con- 
jectural, having no real basis of fact on which to found it unless 
the line ot migration of the members of the Athabascan family 
be considered suggestive. It appears to be ba^ed wholly on a 
statement by Dr. Gibbs, who was undoubtedly high authority, 
that il he should "hazard a conjecture/ 9 it would be that this 
group originated east ot the Kockv Mountain range. 

The movements ol population in the past, so tar as indicated 
by tradition, linguistics, history, and the geographical position 
ol the tribes which pertain to the western slope, appear to have 
been almost invariably southward, along the coast or between 
the mountain ranges. Thus we find the Athabascan stock of 
the north, which belongs as much to the western division as to 
the eastern, and appears to be referred to the former by M r 



6 THE AMKRIOAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Bancroft, has pushed its branches southward into New Mexico 
and the borders of northwestern Mexico. The migrations of 
the Mexican tribes, according \ i} the most reliable traditions and 
trustworthy evidence, have been from the northwest. And it is 
in this direction also we must look tor the course of the M-tvas, 
notwithstanding the tradition of their appearance on the e isiern 
shore of Mexico. This, as an almost univers d rule, has been 
the direction of the movements of the tribes of the northwest 
coast. It is thus that Mr. Powers, in his work on the ''Tribes 
ot California," alter having previously mentioned the migrations 
ot some individual tribes, summarizes the subject : "I wish to 
tabulate here some facts which show more plainlv than has l»een 
done in the report, that California has witnessed a ijre.it invasion 
from the north hi- lore the historic. d period." A bund tut evidence 
to the same erteel rni^ht be addiiicd from other authorises, but 
this is unm-cessarv. This general trend in the inigratorv lines 
is entirely consistent with the phvsical features ot" the continent, 
and is what might have been surmised from these alone. It also 
agrees \viih trie consensus of opinion anion;; historians and 
ait 1 apologists. 

The significance of this general trend in migration, in connec- 
tion with the .suggestions here made in reteience to the line- ol 
investigation, is the s'rong support it gives to the above classi- 
fication of txpes into two great semi-coniincital groups; and 
that it serves to explain the spread ot pcvu.iar t\[>es anil cus- 
toms along the western coast. 

The bioad and manifest distinctions between the tvpes of the 
I\uilic and Ailmtic slopes, uivioing the ethnological iharacter- 
islus ol North Amenta into two great clashes, form, perhaps, 
the most Mire b.isis on which to preduate other steps in the 
investigations regarding the p»ohahle origin of the aborigines. 
It It does not lead us to .1 solution ol the problem ot the first 
inttodiu lion ot population, it \\>,\\ douhtlrss r.<i us in ascertaining 
the origin ot some ol the customs, arts, and heat-Is whuh form 
sin h puzziing factors in the study of the prehiMoiu times of our 
continent. The origin ot the semi-i ivi.iz ition ol Mexico and 
Central America, notwithstanding the general assent among 
Mudeuts to the the<»rv ol its indigenous origin, is still a res'.hss 
factor, a ijues'ion, whuh, like ltaru|uo*s ghoM, "wiil not down." 
Nor is it strange, as rvt-rv one wlo enters upon the study ol 
Home p.trtuular hr.inch rela'ing thereto, is mustarrlv meeting 
wi'.li some'hieg whuh brings up the ipies'i-ui, "Can it Iv tliat 
this is enlirtU of indigenous g^ow-hr Has \\ received no 
irupuNe from exterior mhVieni «■;" If he be a true Htientitic 
Worker, the ghos's ot the thousand and one departed theories 
rise up before him, and toge'her with the fear ot encountering 
the sarcasm ol h:s coworkers, cau*r lrrn tosrno'her the natural 
impulse to follow up the dim rav whi-h he believes has laden 
upon his pathway. Then trie strong opposition ot linguists to 



ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS. 7 

that which does not accord with their views forms a harrier 
whiih he fears to encounter. Hence it is that students are 
deterred from expressing the conclusion on this point to which 
their investigations appear to lead. Kven Mr. Bancroft, in his 
great work, "Native Races of* tin* Pacific States," which is 
usiiallv pervaded bv a broad and liberal spirit, remarks, 4t It is 
not at all improbable that Malays, Chinese, or Japanese, or all 
of them, did at some time appear in what is now North 
America in such numbers as materially to influence language, 
but hitherto no Asiatic nor European tongue, excepting always 
the Eskimo, has been found in America; nor have affinities with 
any other language of" the world been discovered sufficiently 
marked to warrant the claim of relationship. Theorizers enough 
there have been, and will be for centuries to come; half-fledged 
scientists, ignorant of what others have done, or rather have 
failed to dp, will not cease to bring forward wonderful concep- 
tions, sinking analogies; will not cease to speculate linguistically f 
ethnologicallv, cosmographically, and otherwise to their own 
satisfaction and to the contusion of their readers." 

Nevertheless, even in the face of this protest, we propose to 
suggest here, not a new, but an old theory, as one which pre- 
sents a line of investigation, ottering, perhaps, greater promise 
of satisfactory results than any other; it not in regard to the 
origin of the Indians, at least in reference to the origin of the 
customs, arts, etc., which distinguish the aborigines of the 
Pacific slope from those of the Atlantic side. 

No one has failed to rem irk the strong resemblance, in many 
respects, of the arts, customs, etc., of the people of the west 
coas\ especially of the Haida Indians and cognate tribes, with 
those of the South Pacific islanders, particularly the Melanesi- 
ans and PoUnesians. 

It we compare the arts, customs, and traditions of some of 
the west coast tribes with those of the Sou:h Sea Islanders, we 
shail find stub striking coincidences as to render the supposi- 
tion that they are accidental highly improbable. 

The comparison made by Ensign A. I*. Niblack in his re- 
cent work, "The Coast Indians ot Southern Alaska and North- 
ern IliiiiMi Columbia,*' between the Maori ol New Zealand and 
the Haid.i Indians ot our northwest coast brings out a series of 
coincidences whu h, to say the least, is remarkable. And what 
renders this comparison ot special interest is the tact that it is 
no: made to sustain a theory, as the author is not an advocate 
ol the idea ot relationship or even contact between these widely 
separated tribes. It is thus he briefllv summarizes them: **In 
point of physical resemblance, both are of the Mongoloid tvpe, 
and bo'h live on groups of islands whose climates are remark- 
ably similar. * * * Their political organization ot the tribe, 
their ownership of land, and their laws ol blood revenge are 
similar. The men tattoo with designs intended to identity them 



8 THK AMKK1CAX ANTIQUARIAN. 

with their sub-tribe or household and they ornament their ca- 
noes, p.i (Idles, house fronts, etc , in somewhat the same manner 
as on the northwest coast. * * * Under the head nl "Rain 
Cloaks" Dixon ( 17S7HS quoted as saying that the cloaks of 
the I I.iicia and Tlin^it were the same as those worn bv the 
New Zealanders. * * * Also a statement ("irom the same 
authority j that a Haida Certified house on an island ot the Queen 
Charlotte jjroup was huilt exactly on the plan ol" the hipah of 
the savages ol New Zealand * * and that the adzes ot the 
Tlinyit and Ilaida made ot jasper were the same as those used 
bv the Ni w Z Mlaniers. Trie cloiks ot shredded inner bark in 
the Nati'itial Museum Irom New Zealand and the Queen Char- 
lotte Islands are so much alike that it takes a close inspection 
to d:>«in^ui>h them. In plate XXXII Fi«j. 167 a New Zealand 
paddle 1* repioduced with a lew Irom the northwest coast. 
The resemblance is m. irked and interesting. * * * But it 
is sale to sav that while this is not accidental, vet the resemb- 
lances and similarities are as hkelv to have arisen Irom the like 
tendencies ol the human mind under the same external con- 
ditions or environment to develop a lon«» parallel line, as 
through contact ol these tribes or through a common origin." 

1'rol. \V. II. Dall, in t h*- summarv to his paper on ''Mask* 
and Labrcts" in the Third Annual Rerort ol the Bureau of 
Kthnolo^v, expresses a still more decided view on the suljcct. 
His remarks are substantially as lollows: We find certain re- 
markable customs or characteristics ifeoinaphicallv spiead 
north and south alon^ the western sli»pe ol the continent. These 
are not primitive customs, but things which appertain to a point 
consideiablv abo\e the lowest scale ol culture. Some are cus- 
toms pure and simple, as labntilerv; tattooing the v hin ot adult 
females; cer tain uses ol masks; etc. Some are characteristics 
ol culture, as a certain sule ot convcutiotiaii/'pir natural ob- 
jects; use ol conventional designs it) a hiem^lx plrc wax ; pecu- 
l.ir lacilitv in cer am ar's, such as 1 ar vin«» wood, e'c. S»me 
are details ot art rela'ed to religious or m\ tho!«i^:cal ideas, and 
S(»mr are similar rmths themselves. 

He also pi events «ooil reasons lor believing these c annot In: 
ot indigenous Arneiuan growth, but have tn*en impressed upon 
the inhabitants ol the western coast at some time in the prehis- 
toric pa*t bv contact with people Irom l'oivnesia and Melan- 
esia. "From niv point ol view,** he remark**, *vhese influence* 
have bet n :ti. pressed upon people alreadv <:eveioped to a cer- 
tain, not \ei\ low decree ol c ulture. I have stated whv I l>e- 
litve it to h.ive n'Mir to the western Innuit since the < hiel and 
uru\«rs,ii characterises ot that race as a whole were lived and 
de'er iinnt il * * Ol course tins irlluerue has rut been ex- 
erted without contact. Mvown hvpo'hesis is that it was an 
imutspn Irom Mc.anesja via southeastern Polynesia whiih 
product d the impact; perhaps more than one. In all proba- 



1 



ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS. 9 

bility, too, it occurred before either Melanesian, Polynesian, or 
American had acquired his present state of culture or his pres- 
ent geographical distribution. The impulse communicated at 
one point might be ages in spreading. * * * The mathe- 
mttical probability of such an interwoven chain of custom and 
belief being sporadic and fortuitous is so nearly infinitesimal as 
to lav the burden of proof upon the upholders of the latter prop- 
ortion." 

The latter remark of Prof. Dall has been met with the reply 
that it amounts to nothing, as these similarities are mere 
coincidences arising out of similar wants and similar ten- 
dencies of the human mind. But this assertion furnishes 
no adequate explanation of these remarkable similarities in cus- 
toms, habits, and beliefs; similarities which, in many other 
ca>es, are accepted as complete and adequate proof, not only of 
contact, but also of a common origin. The bearing ot the facts 
presented, on the question at issue cannot be brushed as»ide by 
a mere dictum not fortified by evidence or sound reasoning. 
Even Mr. Hubert Bancroft, notwi hstanding his severe criti- 
cism of speculations in thi* line, admits, as we have seen above, 
that it is not at all improbable that Malays, Chinese, or Japan- 
ese, or all of them, did at some time appear in what is now 
North America in such numbers as materially to influence lan- 
guage. This admission, considering the connection in which 
it is found, shows bevond doubt that the facts, with which he 
was familiar, were considered sufficient to warrant the beiief in 
the introduction in the past of a foreign element from the Pacific 
side. And if to the extent mentioned, it follows this element 
must have had some influence upon the habits and customs of 
the tribes with which it came in contact. 

The comparison, however, between the customs, types, etc. f 
of the west coast and Pacific regions, does not end with what 
has been given, as it includes some other items which it would 
appear impossible to account for on the theory that they are but 
accidental coincidences, the result of like tendencies of the 
•human mind. 

We are informed by the Rev. John Mathew, of Coburg, 
Victoria, in his able article on "The Australian Aborigines," 
published in the "Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society 
of New South Wales 1 18891," that the two leading classes ot 
inhabitants of the northern part of Victoria are designated as 
the Eagle or Eagle-hawk and th- Crow. "The aborigines of 
the northern part of Victoria," he remarks, "believe that the 
beings who created all things had severally the forms of the 
crow and the eagle." Now it is a singular fact that the eagle, 
or, as some sav, wolf or eagle, and the raven are the designa- 
tion of the leading or primary divisions ot the Tlingit. The 
origin of th se two divisions or phratries is assigned by tradi- 
tion to the two mythological heroes, 7*7/ and Kanuk, by whom 



10 THK AMERICAN AXTUjUAUIAS. 

the Tlinjjits were created and endowed with the <jood tilings of 
lite. This Tetl is the raven, and, according to Dr. Franz Moas, 
who has cart fully studied the Tim git legends, this Ktinuk is 
identical with the eagle. 

That there mav he eagle .ind crow totems both in Australia 
and along the north went coast ot North America, is not in it- 
seli so very rem irkahlc, hut that these should In.* the designa- 
tions ot the leading diviMons ot the nations in both these aieas, 
and he connected with similar mythological traditions ot each 
section in regard to creation, is certainly very remarkable, un- 
less we admit the theory ot common origin or direct or indirect 
contact. The remaikable feature ol this tradition is increased 
by the tact that, according to Dr. Boas, the Il.iida are also 
divided into two phratries, the eagle and the raven, and that 
among the Tsimshian, the leading genles are also the eagle and 
the raven. 

The tradition o! the il.iida regarding the "Man in the Moon/* 
shows a remarkably close resemblance to that ol the New 
Ze.danders relating to the same subject. The former, as given 
by Knsign Ni black, is as lollows: 

••Koong, the moon, discovered Kethlinga, the man, about to 
di;> his bill kel in the brook tor water, so it sent down its arms 
or rays and grabbed the man, who, to >ave himsell, sci/.cd hold 
ot a big sol.il hush itiaul thena sh.tllon i, but the moon being 
more powerful look m.m, bucket and bush up to itself, where 
they have ever since lived .nici can be seen every i»ill moon when 
tin- weather is clear. The man is a ti lend til T'ku!, the spirit 
ot tin- wind**, .imi .it the proper Mgnai cmp'.ics his hiii ket, caus- 
ing I .illl upon the r.o :h." 

The New Zi-.il.ind tr.iOi!:nn t ,is given by the Rev. Richard 
Tax lo» in I. is "Te-lk.i-.i-M.iui, or New Xrai.im: .o:ii i's lnii.ihi- 
t. ill's," is ,is NmJi.ws; »'.\ v hiit ii.niin: R- >n.i, • •rif night being 
vn\ i|jirs:\, \\ lur. lii* \\\W w.is f r • ■ r 1 1 h»-iiie, w .is 4 1 impcilc d t.'i 
go In 'he spi:»ig hitli*eil, if. lit ii to his .ir*n- -\ .iru e, .is r \\ .is de- 
i'didilii' I"! filill 'o i.'i s. i ; ,i> f.r \\r:i! ! he !U " »*» '*« » .line over- 

i. is*, .riii hi- s*[ii» k ?.:* l"»" .ig 1:11st .1 *'iifi--. l'i i. ■* .ntgrr he 

*.ilit, A W h< .1 V IiU'.i .11 V !f..i' .illi.l lip'tko "iini." •Wi.m will 
iIji* ur »i »fi iii-iK'* '.' » 1 « » m-i: f i' ui i:': , i , .i' : w id n, ' 'i ■»• j .! grc.it 
1 hi si , 1 . i.m 1. :' ::i.:iii 1 :-.!'• . '. 'i • 1:1 s, ( -i|,: a .m: Vim- :»■ ■• ;, !,- 1:1 .uul 
i.:* i 1. 1 • •..«•!! u» w :' .1 r : ' : * i" 'he w i\ ■ ;;■■ i'.r :i es .u * >unt tor 
\\ it - »■., ■ , 1 .t, .■ ,. i.ji'.i.r- " I* \\ i; "n- <. a <«i-: \ <-<: ' fi.r in * ie- I l.iid.l 
ti ii'.: 1 •■ :.•.•• n i^'-i :■•: " e t 1 1 - « n's .i?- ■••■1 > i:-.' «':\ei i , ^i.nwinij 
lli.r ! > ii ■" • :;. .'-'e I g \'i\ ::i l.i.., "ise iim ii::>;.in«e might 
be -' .. s" • . i»!^i ! 

T • 1. !"•■ t ■-»-- r 1 1 'tin e l 'c'wi , i , !i !!:e ncn-if, .is \\i!l .iS the 
!ii> '.'• ; :i;> ■ : * i's' 'r 1 :; ■ ■!>, • r r. * ■■-* \ i-r \ s:in: ^ e\:iii-nie in 
>'•■».' •* ' ■ ■■ " l.i- " ■■■■*. t 1 '.■■::.• 1 1 1 rr.n * 1 -I v.e j«*-.i;*!e* it these 
:\\ • '*^- ■■ s. A' ■: :.■ ?•• a r i;v ■:.•• t ■-• r : 1 "".hf 'v\«i re^i«»nH" in 
the ■■ .'.-■:.'••■,..-: » "e: i r^ '«• lie Wfo'.iMi ii-ast i-l America 



ORIGIN OP THE INDIANS. 11 

and the islands of the Pacific. The number of these resem- 
blance* would doubtless Ik* largely increased il the traditions 
and beliefs of the two sections were fully reported, or even if 
we had made a thorough and complete comparison of those 
which have been reported. Hut sufficient has been presented 
here to show that the line of investigation indicated is one which 
gives promise of fruitful results in reference to the origin of the 
aboriginal customs of the Pacific slope of our continent. Fur- 
ther resemblance is also found in the character and details of 
their religious dances, their social festivals, etc. 

The theory that America received its first inhabitants from 
the Pacific islands is met by those who oppose it, for the pur- 
pose, as is generally the case, of sustaining some pet theory, 
with the statement that America was peopled long before the 
Pacific islands had been discovered by the first bold adventur- 
ers who launched their frail vessels on the bosom of this broad 
ocean. Although it is not our intention to discuss here the 
question of the first peopling of America, or even to advocate 
that the first people who reached the continent were from the 
Pacific islands, vet we will refer here to some facts which seem 
to take the force out of this objection, and to strengthen the 
theory of an intrusive element from the Pacific islands. It is 
asserted by a recent authority that the aboriginal race which 
peopled America was never, at any time before Columbus, in- 
fluenced in blood, language, or culture by any other race. But 
this must be received as merely the opinion of one writer, 
which must In? supported by strong proof or valid reasons be- 
fore it will be accepted, as all the evidence so far adduced ap- 
pears to be « gainst it. A very slight examination of the data 
on which this statement is based shows that they consist as yet 
wholly of theories and surmises, or mere negative evidence, 
save what is lurnished by linguistics. I am fully aware that it 
is considered unia*hionahle and even unscientific by a certain 
and not very limited school of scientists for one to express doubt 
in regard to the very remote dale to which the first peopling of 
the continent is now usii.tllv assigned. Nevertheless, 1 am in- 
clined to think the only limring factor,— beyond some two or 
three thousand years,- upon which we can as vet place any re- 
liance, is the minimum time n quired for the differentiation and 
tv<ilu!iofi ot the varii us ahorigm.il stocks and dialects of the 
continent. And this, to bring it to the assured minimum limit, 
niu**t t>e predicated upon the theory ot the introduction ol more 
than one single linguistic stock. Unfortunately, however, the 
question of chronology in relation to the format on ot languages 
is vet without any satisfactory answer. 

The theory of glacial man in America, which of late ha*« been 
engaging the attention of numerous students, is, as must In* ad- 
mitted by all who are willing to throw aside lor a time their 
theories and look calmly at the simple facts, based upon such 



12 THE AMKIMCAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

slender and uncertain data as would he accepted in no other 
br.inch ol si u-nce. In l.ict it would not he rcieived therein as 
worthv ol 'consideration. Keen the verv lound.ition upon which 
this supposed evidefice rests h.i.s recent I v heen so rudt-lv shaken 
bv the investigations oi Mr. W. II Holmes as to render it un- 
sale and ims* jentilic, to s.iv the least, to predicate anv ari»u- 
ment upon this theorv. Another argument brought against 
the theorv th.it America was peopled irom the Pacific inland* 
is the assumed recent date at which these islands were lirst 
peopled. I: is claimed that we have proof that at least the 
eastern inlands ot Poivnesia were peopled at a comparative! v 
recent da?c, th.it is to sav within two thousand vears. 

Those wiio present tliis argument apoeir to overlook the 
tact that the airhurs who refer to the l'.uitic isl mds as the 
region irom which America was peopled tin not limit thein- 
seivs to I'nivnesii. Cju iu elates, in his chart of migration, 
carries the isne »• ■ North America Irorn Miironesii bv wav of 
the Smdwicli Nl ino>. I Vol". J). ill, who it is proper to state, 
does not leler to ihe of initial peopling of the continent, but to 
the i u^oiu*, e'e , "imprcsseo" upon the tribes ot the western 
coast, looks more to Melanesia than I*ol\ne>ia. ile remarks 
that, "Tne features most akin to those to which, on the west- 
ern coast ot Amt-i ic.t, p irticuiar attention is now Called, .ire 
evid ntiv rel.iieii m ire to those ot the Melanesi.ins or prede- 
cessors of the Polynesians than to the ia'fer, except so Mr as 
the I'tilx iifsian* hi\e heen modilied hv the ciis'orns ol their 
torer unneis. Tin* wmld .ucird wi'h the greater aniiquitv 
whi. h tije k \\\ nuisance* seem to lecprre M 

Ai'in 114'n i! is don't 1 !es« 'iue : h.i» tin- brown, or lighter race, 
pro:>.i!>tv ot Milaxan oM^in, 'ound in most ol the IVuific is- 
i. iritis, umi heii there, or at teas! those lormin^ the l'ol\ncsi,m 
yroiip. a- a 1 ompa;a a ;velv rev en! d.Ce, \e\ it must he borne in 
mind, :hi' 'hese wi-ie preceded bv another .ind iiaiker r.ice, 
nm^'.iv 0! !he I'ap'iin s'u.-^, an i evi.ieiriv t i-jm'.v related to 
the ni-^ro rail*. 'This !* admr'eii hv m-«s'. au'lmr ::u->, .ind, in 
l.ii t, > p:o\i-n *»v .i-i'-rii: in? ev:d-*iuc. I" is even s:.i'eti in re- 
paid '•• tie* ,:_; ]'• ; 1 i% e '\\.\' in tradrion, J.h'mv, linguistics 
at..: n'jii-r s c:,: i, 'i.r \ i\jiieriie the lines <*[ mi _o a* ion can l>e 
tr a» i-.i, po.n* >\ ;..i nt, tr- •■ 1 1 M:« rum *:a !o New Z-* aland. Hut 
at i\f :\ *''".-; :n » :• ;> e ' li s«- .1, \ veu'ur nh navi'»a , ots found the 
is! mis ^:-.i;«* .!.■•• !•!■. ••ii , i l in , d h\ .1 r.ue which had preceded 
th'-'ii. Wi.i'ii ;■! iii — i-iri "iuii-s the^e groups weie Visited bv 
I". ir •/•• i;i niv.^i' e-.'Jr-v w- : •• :■ uri-i m m »st cases inhabited 
h\ ::i\f i m.>- : nmed :•». tije um ,d oi the ]a*cr with the pr tr- 
ie- "." ^ ■ 1 I III 1 if ' ». 

A* "■.• wa- to'iT-.ii 'rue :ri .i!::ji'^t e\er\ island ;» roup from 
Ai-'r : \ •■! \I i'ij-1'-- i», .md If-m \e.\ X'-a.and In the S.ind- 
w.\ 1-iir. >, -.m- : ; s\e ;:-'t ; »e\opd ijiifs'inii that these earlv 
p:--neii- t t:.-.«j:. \e-. m.i\ r, i\e :*■ en Put rude savages, had 



ORIGIN OK TUB INDIANS. IS 

discovered some mean* of navigating the ocean. If they could 
thus traverse two-thirds of the width of the Pacific, no good 
reason can be given why they might not have passed over the 
remaining third to the shores of America. If their passage 
from island to island was only by drifting or accident, it is rea- 
sonable to suppose that the last third of the distance which 
separates the continents may have been traversed in the same 
wav. This supposition is especially applicable to the passage 
to North America, as the course would be directly on the line 
ot the great ocean current. Hence, while it may be that the 
advent ot the brown or lighter race in the Pacific islands, par- 
ticularly in Polynesia, occurred within the last two thousand 
years, the peopling bv the black race was doubtless long 
anterior thereto, tor their dispersion must necessarily have been 
by slow stages and numerous long halts. New Zealand 
ap|Hsirs to have been one ot the last points reached by the 
lighter race, and this from the northeast by way of Tonga, the 
S.imoan group, and, it Hawaiki of the Maori traditions, as 
claimed by Ta\lor and others, is Hawaii of the Sandwich 
Islands, also by wav ol the latter. It is therefore possible, and 
bv no wavs improbable, that the dark race toilowed substan- 
tial! v the same lines, and that America was reached by each 
of tl.ese races many centuries before they landed on the South 
Sea Islands. He this as it may, the fact that this was the course 
ol the lighter race renders it not onlv possible, but even highly 
probable, that oltshoots ol* this race had reached America long 
before the Maoris landed on New Zealand. This would give 
the contact between the South Sea Islanders and the inhabitants 
of the west coast ot North America, and would furnish a satis- 
factory explanation of the similarity of the arts, customs and 
traditions of one section to those of the other. 

Now, while these tacts do not furnish positive proof that either 
of the streams emerging from the East Indian hive reaihed the 
American coast, yet thev, together with the indications ot con- 
tact, which have been mentioned above, render it highly proba- 
ble, and afford a natural, reasonable, and consistent way ot 
accounting tor many ot the puzzling custom?, arts, etc., ot the 
aborigines ot the Pacific slope which so manifestly differ from 
those of the Atlantic slope. They also, so tar as they relate to 
the earlier, dark race, furnish a reply to the objection that the 
occupancy of the Pacific islands was at a much more recent 
date than can possibly be assigned to the first introduction of 
population into America. 

No stress is laid here upon the existence of huge stone images 
and platforms in E isier Island, and of remains ot stone struc- 
ture* in Rapa-titi, Tonga-tabu, and in Ponape of the Caroline 
group, and elsewhere, as these, although indicating consider- 
able skill, and presenting puzzling questions, are no doubt 
attributable to the races found inhabiting these islands. 



14 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

It must also be further conceded that the almost complete 
isolation of the languages o( the American race from those of 
other parts of the world and the differentiation into an endless 
variety ol stocks and idioms must have required more time than 
was required lor the condition which was tound to prevail in the 
Pacific inlands at the lime of their discovery. Rut in connection 
with this admission we must hear in mind that it applies chiefly 
to the brown or mixed races, and not to the unmixed blacks 
whose linguistic affinities have not as vet been thoroughly worked 
out. However, as heretofore stated, these items are not pre- 
sented lor the purpose of sustaining any theory in regard to the 
first introduction of population into America, but chiefly to 
indicate a line ol investigation, which, by a more thorough study 
of the data it presents, may lead to fruitful results, and in order 
to show the great probability of contact in the past of the South 
Pacific race with the people of the west coast of North America. 

One fact, however, should be born in mind by those who arc 
desirous of pushing tlu-ir inquiries back to the origin of the 
aboriginal population ol the continent. It is, that we are as yet 
as much in the dark in regard to the age in which the black, or 
Papuan predecessors ol the brown race, reached the various 
islands as we are in regard to the era ol the landing of the first 
immigrant or cast-away on the shores of the western continent. 
Nothing has been presented as yet to show that the former may 
not have been as e.irlv as, or even Ivetorc the latter; lor it should 
be understood that wh.it is said above in reference to the indi- 
cations furnished hv languages do^s not apply to tin- primary 
(lark race. Another suggestion is th.it admitting the appear- 
ance ol the later Pacific race on the western coast of the conti- 
nent renders plausible the supposition that the darker race, 
which picceded them, had also re.uhed the same terminus. 

Notv, while it is line that investigations m:o these distant 
prehistoric time* lead us through a ha/v a'mosphere wuere nut 
lew definite outline* are discernible, \e! the hues ?»:i^g ■■••»: rd 
appear to be based on saier ground thin iiiom* wfiiih ie quire 
the si|iijn.«ii:ifin of prr-gl.u i.d or in'rr-glacial mm in Ameiua, a 
former 1 *n<l tonnei'iori between the eastern and A^'rin lonli- 
nerrs, anl m'.'ht eq*i ii!v ?»ypo:he*:c,ii *.heor.<>. 



WAS THK SERPENT SYMBOL ABORIGINAL? 15 



WAS THE SERPKNT SYMBOL ABORIGINAL? 

Bv SlKIIIKN D. Pkkt. 

The theory has been advanced that everything on the Amcri- 
can continent w.is the result of a parallel development. There 
is n<> evidence of contact with other countries. The presence, 
however, of the serpent symbol in every part of this continent is 
a stumbling block to the advocates of the theory. We shall, 
therefore, take up this symbol again, with the view ot ascertain- 
ing whether it could by any possible means have originated upon 
this continent, and shall ask various questions about it. The 
following are the questions: 

I. Was it a symbol which arose out of the system of animism 
which prevailed among the rude tribes, the shape of the ground 
and the locality suggesting that the spot wa.s haunted by the 
great serj>cnt spirit ? 2. Was it another form of trinal worship or 
totem 1 Mil. the tribe which dwelt here having made the serpent 
their local divinity or tribal god, and so exalting it above all 
the other divinities and worshiping it as the chief divinity ? 3. Was 
it merely a symbol of the nature powers — the lightning, the fire, 
the sun, the water, making one or all ot them objects ot worship? 
Was it a symbol which had been adopted by some secret society 
and which had become prominent among the sacred mysteries 
and ceremonies, but had now been made public and placed 
before the people to increase its power? 5. Was it the result of an 
intruded cultus. thus showing contact with other countries in 
prehistoric times? These questions suggest the different ex- 
planations which might be given. All of them furnish interest- 
ing lines of study We shall not undertake to answer the ques- 
tions or to defend the explanation, but shall refer to the different 
specimens of the serpent symbol, and leave our readers to draw 
their own conclusions. 

1. The animistic conception may have been embodied in the 
effigies, for they are all of them situated in wild places, where it 
would be perfectly natural to imagine that the spirit of the ser- 
pent would resort, and the shape of the clifls or bluffs upon 
which they are erected would naturally suggest the thought. 
It in very common for primitive people to ascribe supernatural 
spirits to the various objects of nature and to trees, rocks, caves, 
streams, springs, lakes, mountains, islands, imagine that certain 
places were haunted by certain animal spirits, which become 
local divinities. It was in this way that the Island of Mackinaw 
was regarded as sacred to the turtle. The Hot Springs and 
Spirit lake in Arizona were regarded by the Moquis as sacred to 



16 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the great serpent. The Niagara Falls and St. Anthony's Falls 
were both supposed to be formed by the body of the great ser- 
pent which floated down the stream and lodged upon the rocks. 

The Pawnees had a story that the soul of a young brave who 
had been killed was carried to the houses of the animal divini- 
ties, sVti/tHnif, to be restored to life. These houses were called 
by different names, but they were located in definite spots. One 
of them was called Pahul\ "hill island," was opposite the town 
of Fremont, Nebraska; another called La-la wa-koh-ti-to, "dark 
island/* was in the Piatt river; another called Ah-ha-wit-akol, 
"white bank/' on the loup fork, opposite Cedar river ; another 
was called PaAawa, "water on the bank," on the Solomon river; 
another was called Pahur, it is a rock in Kansas which sticks 
out of the ground, called "guide rock." At the top of the 
mound is a round hole and water is in it. The Indians throw 
offerings into this hole to Tiraiva, their great divinity. They 
were accustomed to make a sacrifice of a captive every year, by 
burning the body after they had shot arrows into it. They 
bcl'cved that there were giants at first, and these giants were 
rebellious against Tiraica, but they were destroyed. 

2. The region in Ohio where the serpent effigies are the most 
prominent was on ,e the dwelling place of a tribe of hunters who 
are known to have migrated from their original seats cast of the 
Alleghcnies, following the buffalo in their retreat westward, 
namely, the Dakotas or Sioux, and it is quite likely that the 
name of the snake tieople, which tradition has preserved, was 
the one which was given to them. One plausible explanation is 
that this jx/oplc erected the most of the effigies in this region, 
and that they built the earliest or oldest of the two f'urts which 
are now to be seen upun the summit ot the hill at Fort Ancient, 
the one whose w.ills arc supposed t»» have been in the shape 
ol tortuous and rolling serpents, its gateway gu.iided by their 
heads. Confirm. itory of this is the fact that the -rrjvnt effigies 
are found all along the track taken by the P.ikutas in their 
migration westward to their present seats. One was discovered 
bv the writer mi the bluff near < Mnncv. Illinois another on the 
bluff near ("as^vrle, \Wo«nsm. .mother on the ndgc near l.akc 
Wingra, neir Madisuii. W^coimo, another near Mayville, Wis- 
consin, "till another, di*covred by I*r«-f J A Todd, mi the bluff 
called I)iku!i .Vi I ?h" fut thit carted animal tniies, rescin- 
bhng thuse m Ohio. h.i\e been found m the mounds m Illinois 
and |i«w.i, tin- most interesting of wlnh has the serjxnt coiled 
around the boul cxactlv as the one found in the fort tailed 
Claiks wuiks. 

3 Another explanation is mterc^tirg. There is, in Ohio, 
an «ffi 'V of ,i bird \%hn h is verv much li Vw#- the turds which have 
been inscribed «»n the rotks m I)akota. 1 he-e are supposed to 
represent the thunder bird, a nature |x»wer divinity among the 



WAS THE SERPENT SYMBOL ABORIGINAL? 17 

Dakotas, and which had its abode near the pipe stone quarry in 
Minnesota. This remarkable figure was situated upon a hilltop 
near the east branch of the Miami river. The effigy is contained 
within a square enclosure, the walls of which conform to the 
shape of bluffs and are very crooked. The entrances to the 
enclosure are guarded by fragmentary walls, which arc placed 
within the gateway. The figure itself has not been heretofore 
recognized as an effigy, but on examining it closely we discover 
in it the head and tail and outspread wings of a bird, the wings 
having been formed in such a way as to represent long, grouping 
feathers, the very features which symbolize the rain. These 
various facts, which have recently come to light, rendered very 
probable that the effigy builders were all of them serpent worship- 
ers as well as animal worshipers, and that wherever they had a 
location they erected shrines to this serpent divinity and made 
their offerings to it as one of the sky gods. 

4. A fourth explanation is the one suggested by the serpent 
effigy discovered in Adams county, Illinois. Here the serpent 
• is situated upon the summit of a hill which overlooks the bot- 
tom land of the Mississippi river for many miles, making it a 
conspicuous object. Here, too, the effigy is conformed to the 
shape of the bluff, as it is in Ohio. The sinistral turn of the 
effigies has been recognized in both places. The fact that there 
were fire beds and the evidences of cremation of bodies in the 
bottom of the mound, which formed the prominent object in the 
centre of the body of the serpent, is another point of interest. 
The fire was an emblem of sun worship and was sacred to the 
sun. The phallic symbol was also discovered here. The bodies 
were placed upon their backs, the face turned upward to the sun, 
the hands folded over the thighs; the skeletons of two snakes 
were found coiled up between the hands near the secret parts of 
the body. The number f ^ur was also observed here. This is a 
common symbol among the sun worshipers. There were four 
large mounds in the centre of the effigy; there were four burial 
places in the top of one of the mounds, the points of the com- 
pass having been observed in the burials. What is most singu- 
lar about the whole find was that the altar or fire bed was placed 
upon the summit of a deposit of black soil, constituted a circu- 
lar or saucer- like depression in the soil, but all the soil which 
was placed above the altar and made the test of the mound was 
ol a strong contrast, as it was a light colored sand. A white 
streak of burned lime and a red streak of bark or some other 
substance, a gray stre.ik of ashes indivating between the two 
layers. Here then we have the symbols which were common in 
the cast and which were so expressive of the nature powers. The 
contest between light and darkness, the cardinal points, the 
number four, the several colors, the sinistral turn, the fire, the 
cremated bodies, and the serpent effigy itself all being symbols 



IS TIIK AMKRIIAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

of sun worship. We imagine th;it these symbols may have 
been introduced in connection with "sacred mysteries," and were 
preserved by some secret society or unknown organization and 
th.it the rights practice*! were a part of the sacred mysteries 
which were o|>ser\ed The situatiun is to be noticed. Thev 
were Nituatei! in the wildest places and were often on the sum- 
nut > • ■! hills wh'-rr their form could b: seen at a great distance. 
Thi-y were, perhaps shrines .md places of sacrifice. The altars 
and in i- bed-* are tound in c mtuclion with them. They weic 
calcirated to inspire terror in the min Is ot superstitious people 
and vet were m harm >nv with the scenes of n.itu r e about them. 
The fin* tli. it were hghti d upon them sent out their glare 
throu -h the d.nkncss and covered the whole region with lurid 
light. 1 hey were not uuic.y -dinncs or pi. ices of worship, but 
wen aNn places of ^u'Mhi'e where hum. in bodies wire cremated 
and mystic ceremonies were practiced. We can not look upon 
theM- N.-ipcnt • ffigu-s in the -amewiyth.it we do upon the animal 
fi.;un >. Ii»r they were -trangr- contortions and outre shapes; and 
gh.i-.tly -cene-* Wire connected with them. 

lien- then we h.ive dill-n nt explanations of the serjK'nt sym- 
bol, e.h h oi them furnishing .1 il iff" rent answer to the various 
(j'lrNii-.ns which have l»«en a-*k« d. i-nr p>mtmg to the animistic 
C'lH'-ptioii. anoili'i to the t"ti ini-tii" iil--a. a third to the tutelar 
diumty. a fourth t.iv-'iing the thought liiat a secret society >uper- 
intend' ■! the erection of the i fnv.ie-., .ill o! them doing away with 
th'- n< i es«:ty of .in intrud- d cult!.-* ti» ao ount l«»r them and favor- 
n« r th- - theiiiv of .in uulig n-'ii" •■r , ; ,, n. 

I h»- m.un ol-;: » ti- »n t- trie theory S'. t:i« one which comes from 
th' 1 mn.' .m.' "I tiie -vn»b -!^ ot - m w ■ r - h : : 1 a'«»ng with those of 
*• rp nt a ■ - : - : i ; : i m the i ■ ■; -n wh< n- the ellipses .ire so promi- 
nent, .ind Ironi tiie -tnk:-i ; r -iuj'i! i-u • winch these effigies 
ht.e t.i oth'i> win- h .oe tound in (io.it I »r it.tin, Karopc and in 
on» uta! rmiiVi;' -s. I! \v .io we « xp!.i;n this nui.irkahle combi- 
n.it-.'iu?' ^ii.ili we s.iy th.it th- re wis .i el.is^ of persons who by 
Mini-- !iie.in^ w« re .i k i> t . n i-^ the nce.m .ml make their wav 
tn t*. s ii :iioji j. j-.-n .md tiier* mtioiluce the v.ir:ous svmbols 

m 

wh '. h wen- U-- ! ■.!•,• •■: tii ■ i>tii i -: !e ot tiie w.iter and which be- 
Ion ;i d to th«- .inc;* nt h;> # on« r.iCi - »■? the lis''" 

; l.t ii^c--n--d«i t:^s pit .mi! « x im:ne the evidence on 
b -t;i -. i ■ W ti'.-tii- ■ v !:i e •■! Mr F \V Putnam, who 
he* m id .i ■;» ■ : i! -r . \ . ! tii*- .;tat ^i-rpjn: ;n Aiiams county, 
U;..-» 1 !'■ h i- «i -i : l i I tl. ■ i fti.;\ .i- tiie figure of the serpent 
■» ■ ..i .\ ::iii - ;.; r : , i' -■■!: .i-.d ii ■ :»:ii. r st--.i.tii:".y a! on j the crest of 
tii 1 . »- :t i 1 ' Jt t - -■■ /:■ th- iiv.il rig ;r-- in its extended j iws. 

II ■-.!■. ■. :•- p - '.. -n ».i-: i: -.e-: in i:, .i*e> .i b: bet in the great 
mj:i . ■ :. -a.:'ii ■ \\: t i.iy-* I* ' oij : »■■ ,i t tr in tiie center ot the 
oi i. M '-■.:■•:■■- t:.«- w :•: ■•! I >■ I W I'.-i-ne. who discovered 
.i i- mi irk ri.-- • ■ :: fit «.::!_;■. n«i:e.it ll:.ta:n. "The tail of the 




SHELL GORGETS FROM TENNESSEE 



WAS THE SERPENT SYMBOL ABORIGINAL? 



19 



serpent rests near the shore of Loch Nell. The ground gradu- 
ally rises seventeen to eighteen feet in height, and forms a 
double curve. The head forms a circular cairn, on which there 
still remains the trace of an altar. The ridge was also modified 
by art, so that the whole length should form a spine of the ser- 
pent. Large stones were set like the vertebrae and smaller 
stones sloping off the ridge were suggestive of ribs." It is said 
that the worshipers standing at the altar would look eastward 
along the whole length of the reptile, toward the triple peaks ot 
Ben Cruachan. See Fig. I. Prof. Putnam draws trie compari- 
son between ihis effigy and the one in Ohio. He says: "Each 
has the head pointing west, each terminates with a circular en- 
closure, containing an altar, from which, looking along the most 
prominent part of the serpent, the rising sun may be seen. In 
Ihc oval embankment, 
with its central pile of 
burnt stones, we find 
the l.ingam In Voni 
of India, the red pro 
cal principle of na- 
ture, guarded by the 
serpent." This inter- 
pretation of the great 
serj>ent is the same 
as that given by the 
first authors who de- 
scribed it, Squwr and ,._*„,„, (d Mk( . 
D.ivk. who say that 

the serpent in combination with the circle, egg or globe has been 
a prominent symbol among many primitive nations, and prevailed 
in Greece, Kgypt and Assyria, and entered into the superstitions 
of th-.- Celts. Hindoos and Chinese; and even penetrated into 
America. These authors speak of the altars in the oval enclos- 
ure ot the great serpent near the alligator mound at Granville, 
and the cross at Tar let on. Ohio, all of which were on "high 
places." We are aware that there is another interpretation of 
these different effigies which would make them altogether in- 
digenous, and which would deny any connection between sym- 
bols found in them and those found in ether continents.* 

6. The correspondence between the structures and the relics 
is to be noticed here. We find that animal worship ortotcmism 
was embodied in the emblematic mounds, or animal effigies, and 
the caned pipes. Mythologic divinities were portrayed by the 
rock inscriptions and rock outlines, as well as by the smaller 
images found in the mounds. The sun symbol was also con- 

I reprruntel the IhwIj ii( tht tciprnt. the altar Ihc 
em J ol ihc eliH Kiervthitt* »fi..ut ihrefttr-u 
•I Ih; dirl to Ihe MI pent hn :nn .eJ lu the erection 




20 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

tained in the earth- works of Ohio and the shell gorgets of Ten- 
nessee, the correspondence between them showing that there 
was a religious cult which prevailed among all these tribes 
situated in the Mississippi valley. This, of course, does not prove 
that any cult was introduced from any other continent, but it 
at least shows that serpent worship was not altogether a local cult. 
This correspondence will be seen if we take specific localities for 
illustration and draw the analogies between the earth-works and 
the relics which contain these symbols ol the region, but it will 
be seen even more clearly if we take the earth-works or effigies 
of one district and compare them with the relics of another dis- 
trict, for by tins means we see that the symbols were nut local 
but general. 




L _____ 

- -J .-, llml Hfflmi. 

In the earth - works, th<- concentric circles surround a central 
mound, which has been regarded as a symbol of the sun. and an 
altar to the sun has frequently been found in the mound. In 
the gorgets, the concentric circles surround a central disk, which 
is supposed to be a symbol of the sun. Then- are earth-works 
in Ohio which contain the symbol of the cross, whose sides cor- 
respond with the cardinal point*. There are gorgets in Tennessee 
which contain the cross enclosed within a Circle, evidently de- 
signed as a weather symbol The ifligy of the bird is fre- 
quently s-cn in the earthworks. One of these effigies 
has been d scribed as being in the center of a great circle at 
Newark. It contained an altar, and was evidently a symbol 
of the sun. The tffigy of the bird on the Hast fork of the 
Miami river, referred to above, was, it is probable, the thunder 
bird. There is a square enclosure surrounding it, whose gate- 
ways are guarded by crescent walls. The situation ol the en- 
closure is remarkab'e. It is on an eminence, and is visible from 



|,,,.i.: . .h>.h h..i W t«|«i:ml. i Tfc-.i->. il 



WAS THE SERPENT SYMBOL ABORIGINAL? 21 

all directions. The bird effigy nearly fills the entire enclosure. 
In its shape it reminds us of the various bird effigies found in 
the gorgets. It has been suggested that the structures were de- 
voted to rites analogous to those attending the primitive hill or 
grove worship of the east. 

The square enclosures in Ohio arc, many of them, orientated, 
have gateways in the sides and corners. There are square figures 
on the gorgets in Tennessee which have loops at the corners 
and birds' heads at the sides. Both of these are supposed to be 
symbols of the different quarters of the sky. There are many 
crescents among the mounds of Ohio which arc associated with 
circles and with squares. The gorgets contain crescents enclosed 
in circles. 

Now these different figures show that the same symbolism 
prevailed over the different parts of the Mound-builders' terri- 
tory. The serpent symbol seems to have been connected with 
it. This may be seen from the following facts. Many relics in 
the shape of serpents have been found in the mounds. These 
were evidently devoted to sun worship, and were in fact placed 
upon altars as offerings to the sun. 

The association of the serpent gorgets with what might be 
called the bird gorgets is to be noticed here. Mr. W. H. Holmes 
has described several of these and shown that the bird, the loop, 
the square, the circle, the sun with rays, and the cross were some- 
times combined in one complicated symbol. His description is 
as follows: 

"A square framework of four continuous parallel lines looped 
at the corners, the inner line touching the tips of the starlike 
rays. Outside of this are the four symbolic birds, placed against 
the side of the square opposite the arms of the cross. These 
birds' heads arc carefully drawn. The mouth is open, the 
eyes represented by a circle, and a crest springs from the back of 
the head and neck. The crest is striated and pointed, and the 
two lines extend from the eye down to the neck. The bird 
resembles the ivory-billed woodpecker more than any other 
species." This makes the bird effigy which we have described 
all the more significant, for the square enclosure there contains 
the bird which is in the shape of a cross, but in its curved walls 
may be said to present the loops. 

Gen. Gates P. Thruston has described specimens which have 
been taken from mounds at Severvillc, McMahon and the 
Harpeth cemetery, near Nashville, as well as from Carthage, 
Alabama, which were evidently ancient. These show that the 
cult was widespread among the southern Mound-builders. The 
association of these shell gorgets with serpents on them, with 
the gorgets containing symbols of the sun and moon and stars, 
is another proof. These shell gorgets have been found at Nash- 
ville. One of them contains three crescents, which have a 



22 THK AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 

sinistral turn around a central disk. Outside of these arc nine 
disk-, with dot* inter-[K.Tsed between them; outside of these are 
fourteen other disks, which are carved in relief, so as to make 
scallops to the {pir^cl. 

In Mi Hind City we find crescents which were found in mounds 
winch were surrounded l>v ;i circular earth-work, the svnibol- 




WAS THE SERPENT 8YMBOL ABORIGINAL? 



seen inscribed upon the rock in Pennsylvania called "Bald Friar's 
Rock.'* Mere the head of the serpent is associated with various 
animal figures, but it has the same shape as many other symbolic 
figures in Europe and India, the Jew's-harp or the Mahadeo. 
Sec Fig. 3.* 

There arc tablets which contain the horseshoe symbol, which 
may be compared to the so called horseshoes in the Portsmouth 
works. One such was found near the great mound Cahokia. 
It contains, on one side, birds' heads, on the other, two human 
(aces. In front of the faces are objects resembling serpents, 
which are suspended from the head dress, and fall across the 
mouth. In the mouth is a symbol which resembles the horse- 
shoe. The heads arc divided from one another by parallel lines, 
which constitute a cross; in the cross arc circles. Here then we 
have the symbols of the cross, the serpent, the horseshoe, and 
the circle. There was another 
gorget in the Illinois collection 
in Chicago which contains the 
figure of a person with a crown 
on his head, holding up a huge 
bird by the neck. This person 
has his mouth open and head 
turned back, while the same sym- 
bol of the horse-shoe is in his 
mouth and the same scrj>ent fig- 
ure in front of the face. 





In certain gorgets we sec con- 
centric circles surrounding a 
central disk, exactlv as we find 
in Ohio; tour circular walls sur- 
rounding the central mounds, 
which maybe regarded as the "*' i -* r ' M " ,/ "«"" •"■*"• '*' <*""•• 
symbol of the sun; and what is more, this central mound often 
contained an altar with fire which was sacred to the sun. In 
other gorgets we find the crescents which represent the moon, 
while in Ohio the crescents made from sheets of mica surrounded 
the central altars which contained the fire. The four concentric 
circles were probably designed to symbolize the circuit of the sky, 
the crescents, to symbolize the revolution of the sun, the disks 
to symbolize the sun and stars, all of them astronomical symbols. 

7. The solitary character of some of the effigies is an interest- 
ing feature. A solitary stone was used by the Iroquois as a 
tribal totem, called the Onondaga stone, but here in Ohio there 
were several solitary effigies, such as the thunder bird, the eagle, 
the alligator, the three-legged effigy at Portsmouth, a bear or 



•Thi« figure of the Jew* harp i* not brought out tn the plate an plainlv a» it *h<>ul>l be, 
tmt it tt pUial) teen 00 the mh k . 



•I 



24 



TIIK AMKHICAN ANTIQI'AKIAN 



elephant, and the double-headed snake near Chillicothe. as well 
as the serpent. These were probably tribal totems, but they were 
the totems of a race of sun -worshipers, for they overlook the 
circular or sacred enclosures, which evidently were built by sun- 
worshipers, one at Portsmouth being connected with the group 
which was especially devuted to the sacrifices nf the sun. 

This solitary effigy or totem was apparently connected by a 
"covered way" with the central group, suggesting that the 
effigy-builders had received the impress of the cult which was 
so prevalent in (treat Britain,* for in this group wc find nearly 
all of the symbols which were embodied in the standing stones, 
as the concentric circle, the horseshoe cove enclosed within a 
series of circles, the avenues which cross the river in a south- 
west and southeast direction. A large mound enclosed in a 
circle may be seen to the east of the group; though whether it 
may be said to correspond to the " Friars' Heel" of the Avcbury 
woiks is uncertain. Hach of these is near a group of village 
enclosures. The alligator mound near the villages at Newark 




/■'ij/- 



S^i>r,t' t'.gh.' if mi /'.ifrV • tV-irl •, fl^i-.. 



the double-headed serpent near the villages at M lurnevillc; the 
thunder bird near villages mi th«- Miami, but the great serpent 
seems to be remote limn any such village enclosures: it may 
have belonged to a preceding tribe. 

II. The distribution of the serpent symbol throughout the 
continent is another important point. This distribution is mainly 
in the line of relics which contain the serpent figure, though 
there are .is ue have seen many effigies ip earthworks ami occa- 
simia.ly .111 effi.:ytar\ed out «•! stmie. the two serpents' heads 
whii h vnre m-i n .it tin base of the pyramid .it Chiihen Itza 
Yin atari. Im ing the best specimen of the latter type. The 
inscriptions wlinh «mi!a:n the serpent effigy, and the codices of 
the M.ivas. present the sviiiIhi! under the s.uiie general form, but 
the drt.i-i" -li"W that there were conventional elements con- 
n«i!<«! vutii .1 v% lr li were a- widespread as tile M-rpent figure 



•I : - 



\» 



. f • 



• " t 



• r 



.in 'i 

n • ; 

« • » i • : \ 

- .; ■ » I «■ i ■ .: 



\ . 


■*-. •■ i 1 r %\*ni t*4 


1 .,1 


• \, i,« Mr 1 ri',i 


* * 


< •»! .» i \fn-*r» bqJ 




• *■ *' : * »' . .i. t+ aaJ 


» ■ .' 


. *:■ ir ji [«- « -\:iiUi ,%m 


• 


- r. „■ .■ .?,. !.i n< tSe.i 


■ • r 


T '. !.i tCfpC.lt «>«?- 



WAS THE SKRPEST SYMBOL ABORIGINAL? 



itself. These elements consist in the division of the body into 
four juris in the use of the concentric circles for the eye; in the 
presence of the feather ornament over the head; in the presence 
of the horse-shoe in the mouth, sometimes divided into four 
parts in the presence of the loop or noose, or coil, and many 
other conventional symbols of the nature power. See Fig. 4. 

I I.I The tablets from the North fork of Paint creek, enveloped 
in sheets of copper, represents the snake as coiled up so as to 
make three folds, the folds reminding us of those seen in the 
great serpent effigy itself. This tablet was about six and a 
quarter inches long and one and three-eighths inches broad. 
The snake is carved very delicately upon it. Squier and Davis 
say of the pipes and tab- 
lets that thecircumstances 
under which they were 
discovered render it like- 
ly that they had a super- 
stitious origin, and were 
objects ol high regard and 
perhaps of worship. The 
feather-headed rattlesnake 
was. in Mexico. 1 he symbol of Tezcatpipoca, 
otherwise symbolized as the sun. Fig. 5. 

(2.) A ]ii;n- was found in the vicinity of 
Santa Fe, New Mexico, and is now in the 
possession of W.lliam S. Beebe. The bowl 
is carved to represent an eagle's head and 
back. Along the stem four rattle-snakes 
are stretched in life-like attitudes. On the 
Ic and sides of the pipe are liliputian fig- 
nved in relief. This pipe 
seems to contain the myth 
of the serpent and the 
bird, and at the same time 
represents the supersti- 
tion of the serpent pos- 
sessing everything which 
has the shape. The four serpents represent the superstition 
about the four quarters of the sky. See Fig. 6 

■ 3.1 The pipe which has been described by Squier and Davis, 
which represents a serpent coiled around the bowl, has been 
supposed by some to embody the East India symbol of the 
mahadco, but by others as embodying the native American tra- 
dition of the serpent and the stump, or Manibozho and the pine 
tree. This pipe was found in an altar, and had evidently been 
offered to the sun, as it was cracked and smoked.* 







» TIIK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

(4.) There is a relic which was found on the banks of Paint 
creek, on which the face of a Mound-builder is carved, and 
around the neck a large serpent is folded, the head and tail rest* 
ing together on the breast of the figure. The head is surmounted 
by a knot, resembling the scalp-luck of the Indians, but the face 
has markings upon it, as if to imitate the painting or tattooing 
common with the natives. This relic is a pipe, and yet it has a 
close relationship to certain stone idols which are common in 
this region. Thus we have the idols connected with the serpent 
symbol ami the sun symbol in the same region, showing a com- 
bination of cults. H is carved in red sandstone, and is six inches 
in length and live inches in height. See Fig. 7. 

(5 I A pipe foun.l in Kentucky, now in the Canadian Institute 
at Toronto, represents the serpent coiled around the neck of a 
person, a tree growing by (he side of the face. Tins at first 

embody 




the mvth 1 


if the serpent 


ami 


the t 


ree, hut was 


plain 


!v de. 


•ignt'd to em- 


holy 


" the 


myth about 


M.ini 


Ik>zIi< 


> and the pine 


lri'e.1 


■tt.uk, 


■d by the great 


s.T]i< 


lit. hi 


% enemy 

the old crater, 

* southwest of 


■ Mm 

I've 


tnin'.'r 


in Nicaragua, 

e.l h-i-t .itl-'Ve 


l.ik- 


X-i.i 

■ li.-ui 


ju. are 11 mil- 
es J-l.ll-.d III 


:ln- em 


A":: it 
1: 1- 


utiles-!, the 
tiiiei- tret in 


:p tin- ,« 


r;> ml 


»-n;..r -ide of 


i !i- i-lelll 
■■-live •.',. 

n..:»i s. 


:h ,■: 

[.. ..1 
the 


j:1i ihv A.-.cc 

uiiiili names 

k'.w* 1- that 
y ....■■.-:-:. .fa 


ii.e 1111.1; 


vs.. I • 


-■ rp nls upon 



111- m 


];.■ 


in. 1 :■■■ .1 :I 


e- - were !"i;!n! 111 <■ 1st 


Tennessee. 


irth-is 1 


■!l li ' 


•1/1 1. ..:ii 1. !r 


hi: Kii->xvk!v. I'. inn -see 


S ■■me nf 


Ill's ., 




.» ".■;' ih- IV.!. 


-!v M :.euiii..i:!i>r. in : 


!:■ Natural 


llMuM 


M j 


.in ii Vw v. 


.ik..ith.rs in the Sat-n. 1 . 


(.".■, lei-tioo 


in Was 




■a. Mr II-.::n 


:s s.vsoltliem "l-'r .m a 


very early 


d.il-- ;ii 


Ml -:i;i 


.1 x;. .r.i[i..:i-, 


..„.„.. g„rgrts h.,v been 


bronchi to 


light.). 


1! :!i.- 


1. ■:!■ ■'. -i.en: 


■■ "-I..V-! upon iheiri .nc.i 


ve surfaces 


is so hi 


.-hiv . 


iiiiv-iit.-.n i / 


■! tint it ».is ::ot at ••lice 1 


eco^m/ed. 


1'rof.s.. 


ir Wy 


nun ,i[.;, -.,ts t 


■ :mv been ihe lir-t to pi> 


nit out the 


fact tli. 


1! Ih- 


I.i!:;e-s:i.iki- W 


.is represented " nheis ! 


liave »nce 




SERPENT GORGETS FROM TENNESSEE 



WAS THE SERPENT SYMBOL ABORIGINAL? 37 

made brief allusion to this fact. Among the thirty or forty 
specimens which I have examined, the engraving of the serpent 
is. with one exception, placed upon the concave side ol the disks, 
which is, as usual, cut from the most distended part of the 
RusyioH ptrrtrsum, or some similar shell. The great uniformity 
of these designs is a matter of much surprise. At the same 
time, however, there is no exact duplication. There are always 
differences in position, detail or number of parts. The serpent 
is always coiled, the head occupying the center of the disks. 
With a very few exceptions, the coil is sinistral. The head is 




T,,r„t, .Yir, 



so placed that when the gorget is suspended it has an erect 
position, the mouth opening toward the right hand. To one 
who examines this design for the first time it seems a must 
inexplicable puzzle, a meaningless grouping of straight and 
curved lines, dots anil perforations. We notice, however, a 
remarkable similarity of tin- designs, the idea being radically the 
same in all sjx/cimens, and the conclusion is soon reached that 
there is nothing hap-h.izard in the arrangement ol the parts, and 
that even- line must have its place and purpose." See ['late. 

These serpent figures were evidently designed to symbolize 
the nature powers. In them we have the concentric circles, to 
represent the sun. We find aNo the rotation of the sun repre- 
sented by the coil of the serpents. The coil is uniformly from 
left to right. The serpents are divided into four parts, to repre- 
sent the four seasons, or the four quarters of the sky. The 
neck ol the serpent is covered by a conventional figure in the 
torm of a loop, with dots along the side ot the loop, possibly to 
represent stars. The eye is formed by concentric circles, which 



38 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

again is a sun symbol. The lines below the mouth arc in the 
form of squares, and wire designed to be symbols. 

Those gorgets were buried with the bodies, showing that they 
were very sacred, and were evidently symbols of their religion, 
perhaps were used as charms. Very few of these gorgets have 
been found in the mounds of Ohio, where the serpent effigies 
and sun symbols were so numerous in the earth-works, but the 
fact that serpent effigies and serpent pipes arc so numerous there, 
would show that the same cult prevailed in both regions. See 
Rate. 

Still we discover the various symbols, such as the stiastika, 
triskelis, the phallic symbol, and that which corresponds to the 
caduceus, and a vast number of symbols which seem to be esoteric 
allusions to the plane- 
tary system and solar 
conceptions of the re- 
motest antiquity. There 
are no such symbols as 
the "chat ra or umbrella," 
or the "taurines or ox- 
heads," or "cervincs or 
staghcads," or "nagas or 
serpent heads" or "stupas 
or steelyard," but there 
are occasionally symbol- 
ic trees, crosses, and that 
which resembles the ma- 
hadeo and spectacle or- 
nament, and the scepter, 
which I-, a rod bent like 
Ihc letter /. with orna- 
mental ends. The solar 
wl eel may also be rec- 
ognized, though gen- 
erally a wheel without the rays; the dot in the circle being 
noticeable, though the Kirs arc generally four in number. The 
crux -'an tat a. or Nile key. is sometimes recognized. The sun, 
as a round boss surrounded by rays, which forms a prominent 
ornament in the rait, and is also found in these -hell gorgets, 
but there is no ro-ettc known in this country. The union of 
the sun ami moon i* a very natural one. either astronomically or 
mythological!} 1 , hence we find this symbol is u-ed. We con- 
clude Irom the examination of the figures which are inscribed 
upon the -.hell gorgets, that there was a system of nature wor- 
ship in the different pnrts of the continent, which embraced a 
knowledge of the heavenly bodies, such as the sun, mo-.n. stars, 
four quarters of the sky, which pos-ibly wa-> designed to 
identify the revolutions of tlio-e bodies and perhaps to symbolize 




WAS THE SERPENT SYMBOL ABORIGINAL? 29 

time, though the lack of uniformity in the number of circles on 
the sun gorgets and of the dots in the serpent gorgets renders it 
doubtful whether there was any chronology expressed by them. 
If the Mound-builders had a division of the year into months, 
weeks and days, we fail to recognize it among the gorgets; all 
we can say is, that there was a rude sabeanism among them; 
even this was esoteric, unknown to the people at large, but kept 
alive by the priesthood or medicine men. The evidence of con- 
tact with other continents is, however, much the same as that 
given by the effigies. 

III. The prevalence of th<: serpent myth is another interest- 
ing point This myth is unique, but wide-spread. There are 
variations to it. One is the story of the serpent who came up 
out of the water, and who married and left a numerous progeny. 
There arc other serpent myths among the aborigines, which cel- 
ebrate the exploits of the serpent god The most interesting 
serpent myth is the one which has relation to the work of crea- 
tion, All of these myths are so wide-spread, and arc so diflercnt 
parts of the continent, that a proper inference is that the serpent 
cult was universal here. 

Let us take first the myth of the water serpent and the 
woman. This is generally called "the thunderers." It is a myth 
which, with variations, appears not only among the wild tribes, 
such as the Algonkins, Iroquois and Dacotahs, but among the 
western tribes, such as the Moquis, and even among the Nahuas 
and Mayas. Diflercnt writers have given this myth without 
realizing that it was so wide-spread. A person comparing one 
with another finds the same myth. I-et us begin with the eastern 
tribes. Mr. Charles Leland speaks of the legend of the Abenakies. 
The story is that a very beautiful woman married, but her hus- 
band died. She immediately took another. Five husbands, 
one after another, died. The sixth concluded that she had some 
strange secret, and so watched her. He followed her as she went 
on and came to a deep wild place among the rocks, and came to 
a pond. She sat down and sang a song. Then a great froth 
rose to the surface of the water, and in the toam appeared the 
tail of a serpent. The woman embraced the serpent, which 
twined around her and enveloped her limbs and body in its folds. 

A variation of the same is. that there was a man and his wife 
who lived by the borders of a great lake. The woman had no 
children. One day the woman cut away the ice and saw a bright 
pair of eyes looking at her. Then she saw a handsome face, and 
a fine slender young man came out of the water. He glittered 
from head to foot, and on his breast was a large, shining silver 
plate. This was Atosi*. the serpent. The snake became her 
husband, and she went to dwell in the water with him. Her 
offspring consisted of many serpents.* 

•Alfoakin Lr*rixU. Inland, page 77JL 



30 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

A story among theOnondagas is located on the banks of Seneca 
lake. At this lake two snakes came out of the water; the water 
is much disturbed and the clouds and storms rush over the lake. 
In this case a young man is the victim and the snake in the lake 
is a female. The young man is dressed in white and has white 
feathers in his head. The hunter came to the wigwam and saw 
eight chiefs sitting on the ground, all having white feathers on 
their heads, waiting for the young man to come out of the water. 
Soon there was a ripple on the lake and the water began to boil 
and the young man came with a spot on his forehead. He looked 
like a serpent, and yet like a man. The lake boiled again and 
the great waves rolled on the shore. The «vaves grew larger 
and the serpent man's wife came out on the shore. She was very 
beautiful ar.d shone like silver; but the silver shone like scales; 
she had long hair falling around her, looking as if it were gold 
and silver glittering in the sun. This is the legend of the scr- 
|>cnt and the thundercrs.* 

The Hlackfret have the storv that the wife of a hunter had a 
black-snake for a lo\cr, which lived in a cavern, or den, in a 
patch of timber. The children set fire to the timber and were 
chased by the head of their mother, while the body went after 
the father. The children threw sticks behind them, which 
became forests; stones, which became mountains; moss, which 
became a river, into which the head roiled and was drowned. 
The bodv of the woman chased the children's father down the 
stream and is still chasing him. The woman's bodv is the moon 
and the lather's is the sun. 

The storv among the < )nuh.is in that a voung man made three 
attempts to drink at a spring, hut w.is scared away at seeing a 
snake .ip|>e.ir above the surface of the water. The fourth tune 
lie saw a b* autiful woman, who mariicd him; she was a snake 
woman * 

The sfr|Mtit is i*(\cn connected with s,»mr spring or lake or 
water course, as if the serpent was only a local timmty. but the 
repetition «»f the same myth shows that the si-rpent was a god, 
who had its home m the water, and who, at the same t.mc, had 
to do with the creation. 

Afii'»ng the /.unis the serpent lived in Spirit Lake. He came 
forth trotn the hot springs anil gamed p iwer over the daughter 
of a priest doctor, who was wandt ring near the lake, and became 
her husband 

Preparatory t-» the snake dance, the priests hunt snakes fir 
four successive days, and deposit them in a shrine 

In tii ■ tl.ite dance, the man who personifies the rain g»>d. 
deposits feather off r;ngs in the bed of a stream lie wades 
around hn ist deep in the water f • • • i r tunes T 

•t .ii.«. * \ tt an I » I tr. I a- . •». !• i •!: ! | - ;l: 1. Mn. *.. «i. p \\ 



WA8 THE 8ERPENT SYMBOL ABORIGINAL? 31 

A Zuni chief spoke to Mr. Cushing of the great world- 
embracing waters, and of the hunter who married a serpent 
maiden, and who voyaged to the mountain of the sunset.* 

In the Pawnee mythology. Tirawa lives up in the sky and 
Atius lives on the earth. The thunder is reverence and a sacri- 
fice is offered to it in the spring. Sacred bundles arc kept by 
the Pawnees. There was a giant race in rebellion with the 
creator. He shot lightning at them and then sent a deluge 
upon them; the ground became watcr-soaked and the giants 
became mired in the mud. Great fossil bones of mastodon and 
mammoth are the bones of these giants.f 

Among the Hurons the thunderers wore a cloud-like robe, 
having wings on the shoulders. This cloud dress was given to 
a young man with the privilege of putting it on in the spring 
and floating away with the thunderers to sec what they could do 
for the good of man. J 

The Onandogas have a story that the holder of the heavens 
came in a white canoe, which danced over the blue waves of 
Lake Ontario, and with a magic paddle he destroyed the great 
serpent, and the gigantic mosquitos, and made an outlet for Onan- 
dago lake. Hiawatha, the law giver, had his head wreathed 
with snakes, his dishes and spoons made of the skulls of the 
enemy. \Vh~n he changed his dress he drove away the snakes. 
This story only perpetuates the idea of the terror with which 
any hero inspired those that looked at him. 

Among the Ojibwas Nanibush, or Nanibozho, walking along 
the shores of the enchanted lake, sees something tossing on the 
waves. He turns himself into a branchless tree on the shore. 
The waters begin to boil and beat, and the serpents come forth. 
The great serpent hastens to the tree, coils himself around and 
tries to crush it, but in vain. 

Another version is that he sees the waters of the enchanted 
lake rising and following him. He climbs to the top of a pine 
tree, which stretches upward three times. But the waters still 
rise. He creates an island and delegates the animals to recreate 
the world. The bear creates the swamps, the deer the hills and 
valleys, the butterfly the meadows and prairies. The pigeon 
fails to return. 

The Ottawa legend is that the great serpent came forth and 
was dozing on the beach and Manibozho shot the god of the 
deep through the heart. 

With the Crees, it is a fish instead of a serpent that Mani- 
bozho destroys. 

In some of the myths the thunder bird and the snake are 
friends, the lightning and thunder, which were personified, being 
always connected, but the Ojibwas consider the thunder to be a 

*Jo«raal ol American Folk Lore. Mush, '92. p. 49. tlbib. June, mJU pp. 113-1x2. J I bid 
December. <tu p. 29J. 



32 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

god in the shape of an eagle, which feeds upon the snakes. The 
home of the thunder bird is on the top of the mountain, but it 
sends the young eagle to different parts of the earth to search 
for food. 

The I'assamuquodies, the thundercrs, were human beings, 
who used bows and arrows and had wings which could be put 
off and on; the thunder is the sound of the wings; the lightning 
is the fire and smoke of their pipes. Another legend is that the 
thunder, Hadawk, and Psaxvk-tankapic, the lightning, are brothers 
and sisters. The thunder crash is made by the child Badawk, 
to whom his grandfather had fastened wings. Another legend 
is that the giant thunder spirits dwell in Mount Katahdin; they 
had eyebrows of stone and cheeks like rocks. The wind-blower 
was a great bird, called llW/ti>:cssn, who lived in the north and 
sat upon the gre:it rock at the end of the sky. The Crees hold 
that the thunder is caused by the screaming and flapping of the 
wings of a great eagle.* The Tetons hold that the thundercrs, 
an ancient people, still dwell in the clouds. They have large, 
curved beaks and wings. They make lightning when they open 
their eyes. Their ancient foes were the giant rattle-snakes and 
the water monsters, Un kcltc-glii la, whose bones are now found 
in the bluffs of Nebraska and l)akota. 

Among the Moquis, as among other Indian tribes, the snake 
was the guardian of the springs, and like the fro^, it has come to 
be an emblem of water, and sand pictures of it find an appropri- 
ate pl.icc in the rain <>r water ceremonials. The sinuous motion 
of the animal recalls the lightning which accompanies the rain 
and the zigzag line is used as a sign to designate both.* 

Mr. Walter Frwkes says: "The idea of the serjxrnt guarding a 
sacred spring is so widely spread in the mythology of primitive 
people that it may be looked upon as a fundamental principle.'* 

Among the Moquis. to kill a snake is to destroy the guardian 
of some spring or source of water. 

The llurons have the story of a voice that came from a dis- 
turbed pool and demanded a sacrifice The water t>cgan to boil 
and there came forth a large bird, the diver. The water rose 
higher and the porcupine came out. The water rose in fury to 
a level with the bank and the head of a huge horned serpent 
with distended jaws and Aiming eyes rose and glared at the 
hunter, called Ti-iai-ha. Me. in return, shot the creature in the 
neck t 

•I .-!k I 'ic. i'cr'i ci is* . |>4£, -♦■ 

•■vet* l»'.fiu: • \ . n an I* a I «r. is, t . p.ife i',] I ».<■ (ic*1 |>lua:cd ttfprnt ( the 

Tli'-rn*: k-i-r* *u I a I. tr, lV.r-i.r<r. i*V. f«fr I- 1. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 83 



CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 

By Daniel G. Brinton, M. D. 

Students of native American languages in the early part of 
his century believed that they distinguished in them certain 
ttraits which were so prominent — though no one claimed, con- 
fined to them — that it justified grouping those tongues, so far as 
examined, in a morphologic class by themselves. 

These traits were stated to be two in number. The first was 
a tendency to run a number of words or elements of speech, 
together, under certain rules of elision and euphony, so as to 
form a complex or synthesis of them all; which, as it was in 
excess of that found in most Old World languages, and had a 
different logical intent, was called a poly-synthesis or multiple 
synthesis. The second trait was a notable tendency to subordi- 
nate the verbal to the logical elements of the proposition by a 
scries of substitutions, placements and phonetic changes, 
especially visible in the objective and the possessive relations, 
and in sentence-formation. This was called Incorporation, in 
German, Einverleibun^. 

For a long time there was no serious attack on the general 
statement that these processes are to be found prominently enough 
developed in most American languages to sanction their use as 
morphologic classifiers, especially that of Incorporation. Recently, 
however, several writers, either dominated by the theories they 
had espoused, or deficient in the pyschic insight to understand 
the true nature of these processes, have denied their existence, 
either wholly, or as general traits in American languages. Some 
years ago I argued for the correctness of the older theory, but 
evidently not successfully enough;* for in The Ametican Anthro- 
Poiogist, October, 1893, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt publishes a long 
and labored article, in which he denies the existence of polysyn- 
thesis and incorporation, as they have been defined, and depre- 
ciates the value of linguistic morphology generally as a method 
of ascertaining linguistic affinity. 

His language is so positive and his opinions so dogmatically 
expressed, that the innocent reader will be apt to lay down the 
article with the impression that Mr. Hewitt "knows it all," and 
that the debate is ended. 

Let us sec how this is. 

The first point which cannot fail to impress one acquainted 
with the discussion of the subject is, that in his extended and 



•The article I wrote may be found In my Essays of an Americanist (Philadelphia, 1890.) 



34 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

seemingly learned article, Mr. Hewitt does not once mention nor 
quote the distinguished linguist who first defined Incorporation, 
and assigned it as a characteristic trait of American languages, 
Wtlhelm Von Humboldt; nor does he mention or quote the 
most eminent and able living defender of that opinion, Professor 
H. Steinthal. Indeed, from what he says of the deficient analyses 
of American languages presented by those who have maintained 
the Incorporation theory, one is forced to believe that he has 
never read those writers, and is therefore ignorant of the evidence 
for the theory he is combatting. Otherwise, he could not have 
had the presumptuous arrogance to speak of them as "of small 
value and precarious utility," and as "faulty and equivocal 
works." 

Or is it — as I observe no reference to any of the numerous 
German writers who have touched the question — is it that M r. 
Hewitt is unfortunately unacquainted with the German language? 
That would be a sad plight lor so slashing a critic! It would 
certainly be profitable to him to rest awhile on his arms, and 
learn that tongue; an ignorance of which incapacitates any man 
from acquiring a knowledge of the Science of language. 

At any rate, Mr. Hewitt knows French, because he quotes 
lengthy paragraphs from Duponceau, in the original; unaware, 
apparently, that in the linguistic history of America. Mr. I)ufx>n- 
ceau's views, while rich in insight and suggestion, are not those 
which represent the science of to-day, by any means; a state- 
ment which I made many years ago. and which Mr. Hewitt 
quotes from my article, without appreciating its hearings, through 
defective knowledge of the later history of thv discussion. One 
who has n«>t studied the demonstrations of Humboldt, Steinthal 
and Winkler, is surely foolhardy to attack them, and to claim 
that their opinions have not been "tested" (Mr. Hewitt's expres- 
sion) by a scholarship as deep as his own! 

The one great authority whom Mr. Hewitt quote*, as if irre- 
vocably conclusive, is the "distinguished linguist." Professor 
Whitney; and precisely in reference to the nature of inflections 
and synthesis. Mr. Hewitt does not add — perhaps he docs not 
know — that Professor Whitney is no authority whatever on these 
questions among many of the best linguists in Germany and 
Kurope; that his theories have been condemned as narrow 
and chimerical by such masters as Professor Steinthal and Pro- 
fessor Max Muller, and a host of others. 

With this narrow foundation to build upon, we find that Mr. 
Hewitt nowhere undertakes to reply to Professor Stcinthal's 
demonstration of the processes of incorporation in the Nahuatl 
and Eskimo languages, tor instance; but deals chiefly in blunt 
contradictions. Thus, I had stated that the particles in certain 
languages had no independent positions as words, but could only 
be employed in word-building; concerning which he writes: 



CHARACTERISTICS OP AMERICAN LANGUAGES. S* 

"This is romance and not comparative grammar. Words can 
be modified by other words only." 

It is difficult to decide whether rudeness or ignorance pre- 
dominates in this sentence. It betrays a total lack of familiarity 
with the technical meaning of "word" in linguistic science. 
With such knowledge (?) of the subject, what would Mr. Hewitt 
make out of Steinthal's assertion that "the Chinese language is 
wordless?" Or that of Winkler, that the Ural-Altaic languages 
"are almost devoid of words?" Yet modifications of phonetic 
groups in these languages by others are constant. Are these 
writers also, in Mr Hewitt's opinion, "romancers?" If so, it 
would be wise for him to read rather more in that line of light 
literature. Seriously, a writer unacquainted with the technical 
terms of a science should reserve his writings for the admiration 
of his private friends. 

Another singular instance of the facility with which Mr. 
Hewitt manages to miss the point, is shown in his criticism of 
Duponceau's statement that certain specific concepts, such as "I 
desire to eat meat," may, in some Indian languages, be expressed 
by a single verbal, and thus offer evidence of what Duponceau 
calls a melange <f idles. On this Mr. Hewett comments: "The 
intermixture of the parts of speech (!!) does not follow from the 
fact that a language can in a word-sentence say, 'I desire meat.' 
Such word-sentences are governed by fixed laws of position and 
sequence of stems." 

To remove somewhat the nigh helpless confusion in which 
this astonishing method of translation, and total failure to grasp 
the point made by Duponceau, leave the reader, I quote the 
following passage from Steinthal's masterly analysis: 

•*We must always bear in mind that in the Nahuatl language, 
synthesis cannot have the same signification as in our own. In 
the latter, the synthetic process forms words; in the former it 
establishes the unity of the parts of the expression. In the latter, 
it conveys one idea which is the result of the union of two or 
more concepts; in the former, it expresses a judgment, a relation 
between ideas." 

If this admiral definition is too subtle to be seized at once, 
polemics had better be deferred until it is mastered; for what is 
true in this respect of the Nahuatl language is equally true of 
the majority, the large majority, of American languages, and 
constitutes the characteristic trait of their phonetic complexes. 

Its bearings have evidently not been understood by the Rev. 
J. Owen Dorsey, who contributes an Appendix to Mr. Hewitt's 
paper, or he would not have quoted a series of Aryan compound 
words as of the same nature as these American syntheses. 

Mr. Dorsey betrays an equal confusion in reference to the real 
nature of case-endings in Aryan grammar. He thinks that all 
of tbcm are to be reduced to relations of space, and quotes various 



ft> TIIK AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

authorities who he believes support him This is another instance 
of a complete misunderstanding of the difference between the for- 
mal ami the material in language, on a par with Mr. I lewitt, about 
'•words." Does Mr. Dorsey look upon the numerous termina- 
tions of nouns in the Tral-Altaic languages as the same in 
character as those in his latin grammar? Can he not set- that 
the latter are formal and gramatical, expressing the relations of 
words to words, and not at all independent concepts, attached to 
the stem, as are most of the former? This distinction is so real 
and so momentous that it is lamentable to see it overlooked and 
misconceived by a professional linguist. It is a milestone in 
the history ot language. 

It really would appear from these and from the general tone 
of the article, that neither Mr. Hewitt nor Mr. Dorscv fullv 
understand the fundamental distinction between formal and 
formless languages, a distinction elementary in comparative 
grammar, without a clear conception of which, however versed 
one may be in Knglish, or Dakota, or 1 Iroquois, he remains as 
ignorant to discuss the principles of comparative grammar and 
linguistic morphology as Molierc's bourgeois gewtilhomme % who 
was astonished to learn that he had spoken prose all his lifer 
without knowing it! 

Further to illustrate this, 1 quote the following from Mr 
Hewitt: "The compound stem of word .sentences may, /»: htston 
nil thanks, become parts of speech, notional terms, denottve of 
the things described by the word sentences, and t ; :ey < art be .*.» 
ionsidirctl only wit* n th< l:ngui\tie .w »\ m e has « ome /«» a't^egatd the 
separate meaning of tht elements thu* eowbineJ" i italics mine-. 

Karelv has there been written a sentence more seriously 
erroneous than this when applied »o the formless class of lan- 
guages, to which those of America belong. I shall content myself 
with placing alongside o! it the expression of a really «.omj>etent 
analyst of human speech, Professor Winkler. The extract is 
from his line analysis of the Pokomelii "The sain?- word-corn- 
pl«x functions here as a pure \erb. «»r as a whole sentence, there, 
as an equally pure noun, and again, under some 1 :rr umstanccs, 
what was a verb «»r a verba! expression mav take, on a ■ instruct- 
ive increment, whit h v\il! transfer it wholly mt«» tin adxctive 

Sphere. 

The competent reader will not Ik* surprised to find that alter 
such exhibitions ot his appreciation tor what he 1 aii*"tanciful 
assumption" 1 meaning the opinions ot Humboldt, Stemthal, 
Winkler, etc' Mr. Hewitt 1 Iom** his article with a general 
attack on the talue ot iinguis'u forms in the comparative study 
ot language*, ,imi :n their classification. 

Of i nurse, r. is a great d»*al easier to compare strings of words 
arranged in vih abularies, and I have heard that me'. hod ol com- 
parison lauded above ali other* by very prominent members of 



PALESTINE EXPLANATION. 37 

the United States Bureau of Ethnology; and certainly, where 
the essential differences between linguistic form and formlessness 
are as obscurely understood as they are in Mr. Hewitt's article, 
their application had better be omitted. Though in the face of 
the notable triumphs of morphologic investigation in the hands 
of European linguistics, his assertion of its worthlessness is 
rather painful to one who takes pride in American scholarship. 
But it is not my intention to point out in detail the inapplica- 
bility of Mr. Hewitt's article to a discussion of these important 
themes. I would merely add, in conclusion, that the reader who 
wishes to acquaint himself with the best works on this subject 
will not turn to the early and shrewd guesses of Duponceau, 
nor the views of prejudiced or partially informed writers, but 
will take up for serious study the works of the German linguists, 
Humboldt, Steinthal, Von Fschudi, Winkler, Stoll, Von den 
Steinen, etc. From these he will learn the true status of the 
question. 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. 
By Theodore F. Wright. 

The importance attached to the objects which arc obtained by 
excavation or otherwise in Palestine, appears from a discussion 
now going on in the London Academy, Some three years ago 
Dr. Thomas Chaplin, of the Executive Committee of our Fund, 
brought home a little spindle-shaped object only about one inch 
long, but inscribed on two flattened sides with a few letters. He 
handed it to Dr. A. H. Sayce and a few other scholars, who 
agreed that it was a weight. Dr. Sayce read the inscription, "a 
quarter of a quarter of a nctseg," and he explained the netseg to 
mean the weight of five shekels. Two letters in particular he 
read as "shel," meaning "of." He argued that this weight, which 
had been obtained at old Samaria, must go back to the seventh 
or eighth century B C. Now, this little word is found in the 
Song of Solomon, but not in all the Bible, and so the age of that 
book might seem to be somewhat defined. 

It appears that Professor E. Konig. of Rostoch, was about 
bringing out an edition of the Song, and had come to the con- 
clusion that it is not as old as commonly reckoned; but now he 
must reckon with Dr. Chaplin's weight. So he sent for a fac 
simile of it. and carefully examined it. with the aid of other 
scholars. The result was that they did not think that Dr. Sayce 
had read "shel" correctly, and this opinion appeared in the intro- 
duction to the Song published by Professor Konig. When this 
came to the attention of Dr. Sayce he resisted the stigma put on 
his skill and declared that xhcfae simile must be imperfect. 

This led some to blame the Fund at once for issuingan imperfect 



88 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

cast, and that led Dr. Chaplin to put the weight and several 
casts into the hands of Professor W. Robertson Smith, of Christ's 
College, Cambridge, who has now published his verdict in a long 
communication to the Academy, He pronounces the cast a 
perfect copy, and so the Fund is wholly cleared. He shows 
that Dr. Sayce was hasty in his reading, that the "shel" is hard 
to make out, and that for reasons which he gives, Dr. Sayce is 
probably wrong In fact, he thinks that the writing on the two 
sides is of different ages, and that it cannot all be read as one 
inscription, and that some of it is not genuine. Thus Dr. Sayce 
is left to clear himself from hasty reading of the inscription, and 
equally hasty condemnation of the Fund's copy of the weight. 

This shows a connection between the inscriptions already dis- 
covered and the higher criticism represented by Professor Konig 
and emphasizes the need of excavation and research of all kinds. 
The I^achish tablet is distinctly against the position of the higher 
critics, but they will not yield at once and will need to be met 
with other similar testimonies as to the real facts of the Bible 
times, and so at last the truth will be vindicated. 

Many inquiries have been made for the small objects adver- 
tisedby the Fund, but not hitherto procurable in this country. 
I have just obtained a supply of them, and can deliver them, 
postage paid, as follows: 

1. The Lachish Tablet is perfectly reproduced in a clay cast, 
except that the original is inscribed on both sides, and in the 
cast the front and back are on separate pieces. Kach 
piece is two and a half inches by two, and less than half an inch 
thick. They are very light. The cuneiform writing is very 
distinct. Translation will be found in the (Quarterly Statement 
for January, 1X9,3. page 27. according to Professor Sayce; and in 
Major Condcr's volume on the Tcll-Amarna Tablets, page 130. 
The price of the pair is seventy-five cents, and cither half will be 
sold separately for forty cents. 

2. The seal of Haggai. the son of Shebniah. was discovered 
near the southwest corner <»f the Temple area in 1807. and is 
described in "Recovery of Jerusalem," page u> and 386. The 
original is a black stone, oval in form, and hut half an inch long. 
The names form two lines of old Hebrew characters. This is 
reproduced in metal. The price is fifty- five cents. 

3. The ancient Hebrew weight is fully described in the Quar- 
terly Statement for October, 1S90. page 267. It was obtained 
bv Dr. Chaplin in Samaria, in lK</>. It is about one inch long, 
pointed it the ends, and swelling in the center to a thickness of 
a quarter of an inch. There are two lines of ancient Hebrew 
characters, which have been read as meaning a quarter of a quarter 
of a net/eg. This is also reproduced in metal. The price is 
sixty-five cents. 

4 The fourth object is a reproduction in clay of a weight or 



A WESTERN TEW AN. 39 

bead obtained by me from Anata Anathoth. It was handed to 
Mr. Armstrong for examination, and has proved to be an im- 
portant object, as the inscription is variously read by Professors 
Saycc and Ganneau. The bead is a hemisphere, three- quarters 
of an inch in diameter, and half an inch high. It is pierced with 
a hole, and has three letters upon it. Sec Quarterly Statements 
for January, 1893. page 32; July, 1893, page 257. The price is 
thirty cents. 

The price for all four is £2.25. 

Cambridge, Mass. 

o 

A WESTERN TEWAN. 



PRAYER PLUME FOR RAIN. 

By J. Walter Eewkes. 

On my departure from the Eastern Mesa of the Tusayan 
Pueblos last July (1S92) I told the head men of Hano that I was 
going to cross the great eastern water (the Atlantic ocean) to 
exhibit the products of their skill, and that of their ancestors, to 
the descendants of the Kastel-cy-nu-muh (Spanish people) who 
first of all the white men visited and discovered their race. I am 
not sure whether I suggested the idea that follows or not, but 
the Tusans at least required little solicitation to carry it out. It 
seemed to them a good plan to prepare offerings to be made at 
the great water for the rain, which was sorely needed at that 
time. When I left the country the prayer emblems were not 
ready for me, but later Mr. Stephen* who was at work for the 
Hcmenway expedition, urged the priests to send them to me. 
Accordingly they prepared their offerings, and the prayer sticks 
were forwarded to Boston, where thev arrived too late to be used 
before my departure, but were found on my return. 

Three prayer sticks or ba ho(s) were sent to me, two of which 
were made on July 29th (1892), in the room above the first house 
to the right as one approaches Hano; the other on August 2nd, 
by the chief, Ka-la-cai, in a room adjoining his home. The first, 
according to Mr. Stephen, was prepared on the initial day of the 
Su-mv-Jki>-/i ceremony, and are identical with those made at that 
timc.t 

The instructions transmitted to me from the priests by Mr. 
Stephen were: "Set the ba~ho j)at the edge of the water, or plant 

•Mr. Stephen *a« unable to obtain bak*(t\ from Walpt and Si-tcum-o-vi. and the offering* 
tore described are frum the ChieU of Hano or llanokt, commonly called Tewa. the first o' 
tto tare* ullage* of the F.att Mm of Tuaayan. 

tStt Journal of American Ethnology and Arch apology, Vol. II, No. 1. 



40 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

them in the water and cast the meal upon them, and then over 
the water, and pray the clouds to hurry here fast with the rain. 
Each man sends you a handful of sacred meal with the ba-ho 
which he has made."* 

The form of these prayer emblems is as follows: Kach ba-ho 
is formed of two sticks tied together with cotton string, and is as 
long as the middle finger measured from the crease in the palm 
of the hand to the finger tip. One of these sticks is the female 
and has at one end a flattened face, painted green, with three 
spots. The other is the male, and has an incision, also painted 
green, cut in it. The shafts of both are painted black; the blunt 
end grem. This is a characteristic Ti wa ba-ho anil differs from 
that ot the Hopi in the fact of the male stick of the latter being 
without the feneled incision, as I have already elsewhere pointed 
out. I 

The male and female sticks are bound together in two places, 
near the pointed end, and at the lower jwrt of the incised fenele 
below the flat Lict:. The ft inner binding consists of a number of 
strands of loosely >pun cotton, upon which are painted four 
parallel black lines a quadrant apart; one just above the point of 
approximation of the two sticks, one diagonally opposite, and 
two a quadrant from these. 

The second binding cord is also a double, loosely-twisted 
cotton string slipped on the /'</-//<'» j>,and has two feathers attached 
to its ends. 

A turkey leather is tied to the back of the /•</ ho, and a leather 
from the breast of the r.i'»le is inserted between the two sticks ot 
the A/-//.» f 



• \ i i !-m; t • \f I M.-j ' i n n . Mri k*4 '.A • *.i . I 4 l *«■ • -It 4fi 1 k* i i i '■ I r.r*«- 

thrr#> ' i ■. ||.. • i '. »jtr. .i t .it< t '• •!:.• r M4« :iu lr i > k»4 -i • » i . >it 1 r .1 * l\ t? r 

Ii4Ui I- tttiri '. \ | .■ '.v<* :i ii 

• I Nvrr «r»» i|r!ii fit - llfil 1 1. at w J ill tl.»- *.j I f ■ arc n A \r ' %\- \ f » ' r * <:i If r 

M: fci l--.il « ijj^r « x ■ii.i*t.-i.ri iiic! f r 1l-:i |>i. r |i>*^«> II nr\ 'i >•' * ».1 - »|- tl r < a"- • 
f •**■' « ! »i Mr !■ !\ in I I -tti ■ n ■!: «• t !• 4t ka '* i** f »! n\ * #■ ' 4 ! t! ■» 4 lii; ■ i.«c I tf.r 
A./ A <•: »- . -i> |,|.i- 1 .(i •!.•• t;'. n i .4 ! f<-r 4tt 1 *j»*t tutfar an '. *j- ttti ! t* r f .r if 1 ti *: 

\f ii r- 

I I ?■• "' f>itir • tl . tt-.ri -tt.tiff < ' ti' n:itjt'«-li»ii! *• ! I* r * : i -r^v.irl 

I > *» :i I • k" » .■ i I r r .'i ', jiii r-i -t tNtcc * flt;rn. 



THE SUASTIKA AND ALLIED SYMBOLS. 41 



THK SfASTIKA AND ALLIED SYMBOLS. 

By C. Staxiland \Y.\kk. 

The use by the aborigines of the North American continent 
of the suustika and also of a design resembling the Chinese Tai- 
ki. or the Yin and Yang figures, has long been known. The 
presence of these symbols, as they must be regarded, in the fine 
collection of Indian objects brought together in the Ethnological 
Department of the Columbian Exposition gives occasion for 
some further reference to them and their origin. Among the 
numerous relics of copper obtained by Mr. \V. K. Moorehead 
from the mound at Hopewell's Farm, Ross County, Ohio, are 
two objects in the simple suastika form. The meander pattern, 
which is allied in some way to this symbol, appears on pottery 
and cloth from various localities in both North and South Amer- 
ica ; as do also the single and double spirals, which have a simi- 
lar connection and would seem to have some relation to the 
Tai-ki figure. This maybe traced in the ornamentation of work 
baskets made by natives of British Columbia, which agrees in 
general character avith that inscribed on shell disks from the 
mounds of Tennessee. 

In a monograph entitled, "The Tai Ki, the Suastika and the 
Cross m America." read before the American Philosophical 
Society in iXXX, Dr. Daniel G. Brinton expresses his belief that 
ail these symbols are closely allied in meaning, and that they are 
"graphic representations of the movements of the sun with refer- 
ence to the figure of the earth." This is one of the most gen- 
erally received opinions among European writers, who regard 
the cross inscribed within a circle, with a central boss, as repre- 
senting the rolling sun. Dr. Brinton objects to this view, that 
the same figure was familiar to peoples who did not know the 
mechanical device of the wheel, and he affirms that "when 
applied to time, the symbol of the circle in primitive art referred 
to the return of the seasons, not to an idea of motion in space." 
In confirmation of this opinion. Dr. Brinton gives a representa- 
tion of the curious Aztec symbol of the year- cycle, in which he 
supports the development and primary significance of the square, 
the cross, the wheel, the circle and the suastika may be observed. 
The fact remains, however, that the Aztec figur*' has the form of 
a v, heel, although with incomplete peripheral disk, and though 
enclosed within a square. This square represents space, from 
the four corners of which the winds are blowing, and within 
which the seasonal motion takes place. The inscribed figure, which 



r.' THE AMKUH'AX ANTIQUARIAN. 

has the sun tor the central boss, has the appearance of revolving, 
bv means of its four arms as with the seven-armed sun of the 
Chokitapia or Blackfcel Indians.* Thus, although the actual 
idea of motion of the sun in space is not represented, yet the 
movement • »f the sun through, ut the ve.ir is intern led to be 
t"i 'ured. We have the same idea in the three levied symbol 
used as the emblem of the I sic <»f Man. 

Evidently motion is the affective idea embodied in the timc- 
evv le svinbul, as well as in the wheel-i ross. a form ot wheel met 
with .I-* a common decorative design on native Hra/.man pottery, 
has spiral fpMires inste.ii! of the tour arms of the A/tec symbol 
The sp'ral nil! is thus a^^ociatf-d with the Mi.tstika, a> this i«* 
connected with tin* Tai-ki. and all aike must b ■ regarded as 
having fi-I.ii 1* in t«- the position «•!" the sun, .md thus a- hiving a 
ci>mmoii i ri-.Mn. I he i«"ii arm - io^s ais<> has reteieiii.e to the 
tour ihffi tutus. i»r piii::ts < »t th«- compass, but these have relation 
to the Conine of the sun in its t\ uly p irh, t n« ! the assm iation with 
the cioss s\-mbi*i ot the fi'in wind* is serniidaiv, as «.:mwn by the 
\.u l that 111 the A/t'-i ;". .■ uri- <■! th- tune-i \ • le. tin' winds come, not 
troti i the (• •■•ri: it liters, ! nit ti i <m the t**'ir an. des ••( the sip:. nf, which 
be smith, ast, N'uithvi' --t. nnthea>t and n iitlnvi--! Hit .an thi^ 
ti^ui'- hat e been the « 1 1 nil !■ -i m !r ••:: whii h tip- Mi.htiLi and the 
'la-kiwri'- ileir.rfl' I iie t a m» r nn.'h: • f r t.n nl \ have arisin 
thru ; h the -In »rt' huil! « »t th-- cuiv- d > -nti^'iatn'ii* <-t the f.nir 
arms nl tin* figure a. til" 1 : di ;t i"i •«! " ■ i in»tfi> -■.mi.rn o' as a 
"broken cncle. ' -< - ::•, ■ 1 ii.it the ti.^ire d ■'■•> rot t m:m a compete 
i iii le This tact thv- '.*. - ii- -lit! ■ -n th-- ;i»'svb: t v "t d r,\ n .■ th ■ 
l'ai-ki Iroin the A/!'" r"i .; - 1 •-. ^ ii ■ i- . ■ ri the . i*her hmd. o«u •: 
« as !v li.i\ »• ■ »i : ;m t*» d Iroin the w ;:•■• lei i-.*, n- ■• .\ :th-ta'vi:n.; the 
ob:e* t : ■ ■ f l ai; in." If om th- ■ 'ii-ir.m- e ■ -t th'- iii- ■■!: in . il d'-\ :%'• «»f 
the wh e wiiitfi I): lirmton r. y\*\\ i* r.ii i •■«*h-- Xmeiican 
In>!:aiis. I-- ■: tin i. ::■ r.tiu e -iii! ni»t e\t- :■■! t" t: r l.n.- motion 
nt i>i-:nd ob ei ts ( and as ths :> the nnv m ■<:-• nwhih m:cIi 
iib"i i t^ (io in. » v • - . .ind 'lie • .n ev i!- ::tly h i- :!'. t --n. t 1 " native 
nrn 2 may well ii i\ " v.'err-i th it :t m 1 '■>[ :»i : ■. ,,. : S r- i in 
the -ith' r h mi. the A/' fiare srv.dit i.av ■ ■■: . \r it- i -inv.ilv 
in tir i'i- in-j it;- -n -t t:. .!:■:> .■! TBI*- •»'.! i^!:ki v. n ■ h m iv iiave 
b- en i 'irvf'l at ■"•] t-.m- . *• > -m n. ^tr e-htt. n i w h :i ti.e or:^:n 
■ i? th« sii i^tik i w i- t ■: tv n 

I n e re : . n , t , ; ;\ m \\.t\\ \ : . t » tik t : : . > : !."!i, is a s;m- 

;•!•■ !-\;i in i'.i'! . in b- ■ \ ■ n •»: til- ■ umii n .-r . :n -•' tiv s.:as- 
tika .in-: *iie Iii '• -mi \\ . it ::: »\- b ;>: :■ • .v t i-ise-! the 

■ • • 

w h ■■■ . i tii ■ . ii :■ ■ m : ■' r -i* ; ■ t* his •! :t I ii- p- rl .!w heel. 
w : . .'. ■■ :•■ f .:■■. *\ . *■■ .»,■ - .,:-. i :: .-i. w . : («■:•:■ st-nt t:e- ^.ilar 
[.■•■:\ n\ : Mi i n i :! ■ .' t t ■ I'll-- r ■ b ■ v. »un t ■ l'» i !:h.siu as 
th« Wii'-i i "t t . ! i.\ i: *ii ! -:r ^-\ ■: n ■ •■? the periphery 




THE KUA8TIKA AND ALLIED SYMBOLS. 43 

of the wheel symbol be cut short, we have the Aztec time-cycle 
figure, and still further shortened we have the suastika with its 
extremities slightly curved. If, instead of the periphery being 
affected, the four spokes of the wheel are curved, we shall have 
the four-fold American symbol which answers to the Tai-ki. 
The origin thus supposed is confirmed by the form of the Tai-ki 
itself, which, as Dr. Rrinton points out, resembles the Mexican 
Triskeles, used to denote culminating days, in having one of the 
two equal sections of the circle which represents the Yin and 
Yang divided by a third arc, the other section re- 
taining its original size. If a fourth or any other 
number of curves were added, we should have the 
varying forms assumed by the Yin and Yang figure, 
and the cross within the circle may thus be regarded 
as the foundation of the Tai ki, as well as of the suastika, the arms 
of which take a curved form on pottery from the Missouri mounds, 
exhibited in the Anthropological Kuilding at Jackson Park. 

That the suastika really forms the basis of numerous phases 
of the meander pattern could be established, I think, from a 
comparison of the examples brought together by Professor Alois 
Raimond Hein.of Vienna, in his Meander, Krcuzei, Hakinkreuze 
und Vrmotivisehe Worhelornamente in Anterika, published in 
1891, although other phases are derived apparently from the 
spiral coil, the connection of which uith the suastika is shown 
by the double spiral, associated with the ring-cross, of Rrazilian 
pottery. That is not, however, the view adopted by Dr. William 
II Goodyear, in his "Grammar of the Lotus," who looks upon 
the suastika as merelv a detail of the meander, a conclusion 
which it would be difficult to accept in face of facts which I have 
not space here to enlarge on. 

Objections might be made to the connection of the suastika 
with the solar wheel arising from the association of the former 
with the four winds. It must be remembered, however, that the 
wheel represents more than the mere solar orb. It is symbol- 
ical of the course of nature, among which the phenomena of the 
winds occupy an important position. The question can be re- 
solved only by reference to such esoteric ideas as are connected 
with the Yin and Yang of Chinese philosophy, which stand for 
the opposing yet complementary principles of energy and force 
in nature. 



44 TI1K AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 



PRK-HISTORIC POTTERY FROM TIIK MIDDLK MIS- 

SISSIPPI VALLKY. 

HV Pku| !»(>K JAMIS I"). BlTLIIk. 

The State Historical Society of Wisconsin has just added to 
its museum several hundred specimens of pre-historic pottery. 
Its purchase of the Perkins collection of copper implements in 
1S75 rendered that society easily first in that department of 
antiques. Nor was it far behind in the line of Indian curiosi- 
ties gathered by (iovcrnor Doty, and in relics of the stone age. 
The treasures of the ceramic art just now acquired form a new 
departure, and rounds up the circle of its exhibits. They are 
also more suited to spectacular display than any species of abor- 
iginal remains which it has hitherto shown. 

The new treasure-trove consists of two hundred and fiftv four 
pieces. They were all discovered in southeastern Missouri or 
northeastern Arkansas, in the Missouri counties o| Scott, Mis- 
sissippi, and New Madrid, and in Cross and Poinsett counties of 
Arkansas. All were fount! in grave* of a depth of from two to 
five feet. They had usually been placed one each side of a skull. 
In trans- Atlantic cemeteries similar vessels, when buried with 
the dead, were often purposely broken, either as a token of grief 
or to make them valueless in the eyes of grave-robbers. Hut 
these Mississippi memorials were evidently laid in the dust 
unbroken, and probably contained food or drink. Indeed, when 
exhumed, so many of them were still whole that only about ten 
JK.T cent o! their number needed to have their fragments glued 
together. 

I he material is clay of various colors, but usually blackish. 
It is teiii|K*red with bits of shell, which olten give it .1 pepjK-r and 
salt appearance, the pepgier predominating. All the articles arc 
hand- made, showing no t rates ot any wheel manufacture, but 
they an* molded in forms symmetrical ami sometimes ot Classic 
elegance None of this handiwork indicates acquaintance with 
the art of glazing, though some articles were rubbed smooth and 
reddetii- 1 with m hre. or veneered with a different variety ol clay. 
Not a tew i»i the shape ot gourds or squashes would seem to 
have been nhnl I'd and shaj>ed on these natural molds. Others 
show the tonus • f mud-turtles, fishes, and various animals. A 
lew imitate the human figure. One female kneeling low, appears 
to be in .in attitude and with a look ot humble but earnest sup- 
plication 

The variety in form. *\/v and fashion is \erv considerable. 



PRE-HISTOIUC POTTERY. 45 

There are shallow or wide-mouthed vessels, which we term pans, 
bowls, basins, porringers, and cups, according to size and shape. 
One, seemingly copied from a shell, has a nose like a butter- 
boat. Where the mouths are somewhat narrower, we may call 
them pots, some of which would hold a pailful. Some pots have 
projections on their rims, or a sort of ears, through which thongs 
would slip to suspend them over a fire or elsewhere. Others 
run up in the style of long-necked birds, which serve as handles. 

The articles which arc most narrow- mouthed, it is natural to 
call bottles. Of these some are as big-bellied as demijohns, 
while others are so slender that their necks are only two or three 
times as thick as their bodies. 

At the base the bottles are either flattened or they stand on 
three legs. When their necks support the heads of animals the 
animal's mouth sometimes forms a bottle mouth — but that orifice 
is at other times in the back of the animal's head. The ears of 
the human heads were pierced, as if for ear rings. 

It will be observed that many styles of archaic pottery have 
no representations in the collection we have now acquired. The 
coil pattern, for instance, so common further south and east, has 
had no existence. In this variety the clay long drawn out into 
a rope and rolled round, was then bent into circular layers, so 
as to form a base, then swelling sides, and then often the con- 
tracted neck of a jar or bottle. 

A large number of our acquisitions bear some sort of orna- 
ment as Nwelling bosses, or, on the other hand, sunken dimples, 
a sort of rcpouset work produced by the artist's finger pressing 
the sott material from without or within. Other styles of decora- 
tion arc bits of clay stuck on outside, here and there, like spit- 
balls. Sometimes rims are indented so as to resemble twisted 
cords, or the links of a chain; at other times there are lines, 
straight or curved, or rising like the rafters of a house. Hut a 
majority of the sj>ccimens are totally unornamented. These 
relics devoid of ornaments, one is at first inclined to ascribe to 
the most archaic era of the art. It is not, however, to be for- 
gotten that bones of the mastodon, an animal now extinct, have 
been found carved with representations of hunting that animal — 
a find which argues that no art is more ancient than the taste for 
ornament. 

What was the beginning of the potter's art? is a natural 
question. 

Herodotus tells a story concerning a Scythian custom which 
may throw light upen the invention of pottery. The people 
having killed an ox, would use his stomach as a caldron for 
boiling his flesh. Hung beneath a tripod and high over a fire, 
such a kettle of green tripe would stand much heat while the 
flesh was boiling. Now and then, however, it must burn through. 
What more natural than to stop leaks with the clay on which 



46 1HK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

it may be, the fire had itself been kindled? It is the first step 
that costs. After one clod had been stuck on, the whole stom- 
ach would be speedily covered with such fire-fenders, and at the 
next step would be discarded altogether when the clay pot was 
once well baked, or rather would perish in the baking. Behold 
the possible genesis of pre-historic pottery. 

American archaeologists hold that our pottery originated, rela- 
tively speaking, earlier than that of Egypt. In saying "relatively 
speaking," they have reference to the fact that no Egyptian 
pottery is older than alphabetic writing in the land of the Nile, 
while all our relics ot that sort were fashioned among jxrople 
who had not yet invented any sort of A, B, C's. Our handi- 
work seems then to run back to an earlier stage of development 
than any known Egyptian survivals. 

The lessons we shall learn from our new discoveries of primeval 
art it is impossible to foresee. Varieties in the fashion of vessels 
may demonstrate the lines of demarcation between tribe and 
tnb«\ Each fish, bird and animal may give us a clue to the 
emblem or totem distinguishing one clan from another. Orna- 
mental lines which we at first ascribe to capricious fancy, may 
at length turn out to he significant of some real fact. 

My own hope is sanguine that within a decade our museum 
will be enriched — thanks to our collections from states south 
and west — with a pre historic treasure-trove of Wisconsin pottery. 
No specimen «>f that sort has, indeed, hitherto come into our 
|>osscsMon But we know that some of them exist, indeed we 
have seen and handled them. Anion * the fiftv thousand visitors 
who annuallv walk through our show room, we trust that some 
now unknown t«» us will prove to be owners of these varieties, 
and will be disposal to place them where they will do most 
good In juxtaposition with types from a distance — each class 
lending and borrowing light by mutual relict tion, they will aid 
more than <\in be foreseen — comparative research "in the dark 
backward and aovss of time." 



JAPANESE ART ON PUGET SOUND. 47 



JAPANESE ART ON PUGET SOUND. 
By James Wickersham. 

An application was recently made to the Tacoma school board 
by a Philadelphia educational society for leave to remove the 
Tacoma school exhibit at the Chicago Exposition to Philadelphia, 
there to be added to a collection illustrative of the public school 
system of the United States. In the same connection Dr. Wilson 
made a further request of some of our Washington people, viz.: 
that a large photograph or painting of Chief Seattle be forwarded 
with the exhibit that it might be hung in connection therewith, 
as illustrating the advancement in civilization on Puget Sound — 
the contrast between the degraded savage and the intelligence of 
our schools. To this I respectfully demur, and object to hanging 
the (ace of the celebrated Dwamish chief in a public hall as a 
symbol of the supposed stupidity of his race — as a monument of 
savagery and ignorance. And it meets with my special protest 
that the first one chosen to fill this degraded position should be 
the white man's friend, the staunch opponent of the white man's 
numerous vices, the typical man of strong Indian virtues — Seattle, 
the peace chief of the Dwamish ! 

Was Seattle as ignorant as Dr. Wilson's request would sug- 
gest? Does he represent so low a grade of civilization that he 
ought to be gibbeted as an example? I think not; and in the 
few remarks oftcred it is intended to show that he was a fair 
representative of a race ot people occupying a mid-position in 
the civilizations of the world — not as high as some, and certainly 
not as low as many. This civilization occupied the coast line of 
America from the outer Aleutian islands to the northern bound- 
ary ol California, and never extending into the interior of the 
continent at any point except on the waters of Puget Sound and 
the Columbia River. A very different type of people lived on 
San Francisco Bay, for while the natives of Vancouver's island 
went out upon the open ocean far out of sight of land, to attack 
the whale, in boats of remarkable beauty, size and seaworthiness, 
the poor Indian of San Francisco Bay rode on a bundle of reeds 
or the frailest sort of a dug-out. But from the mouth of the 
Columbia River to Southern Alaska, skirting the shores of the 
Pacific, there existed a type of civilization unique and more than 
ordinary in character. There was a reason for this ocean-fringe 
population — a cause that produced their higher civilization, and 
to this I now invite your attention. 

The northern equatorial current of the Pacific ocean takes its 
rise off lower California, and sweeping half way around the earth, 



48 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

just north of the equator, strikes the shores of Asia, whence it 
is deflected northward. Off the coast of Japan it is given the 
name of "Kuro-Shiwo," or ''black stream," so well known to the 
Japanese from ancient times. From the shores of Japan the 
current strikes northward and east, until it reaches near the 
American coast, where it divides — a great ocean eddy bathing 
the southern shores of the Alaskan peninsula in warm fog and 
rain, while the main current sweeps majestically southward past 
the coasts of Washington, Oregon and California to join the 
equatorial current again off lower California. This greatest of 
ocean currents is the cause of the higher type of civilization on 
the northwest coast of America. On its outer rim, for its full 
distance around the great circle, we find the same black- haired, 
yellow race of men — the same physiognomy and the same civil- 
ization; its representatives are the Japanese, the Haidahs, and 
the Sandwich Islanders — the parent is the Japencse race. 

In the year 1833 a Japenese junk was stranded at Cape Flattery. 
It had been cast adrift off the coast of Japan in a storm, and 
being disabled had drifted in the •'KuroShiwo" from Japan to 
Cape Flattery. One day an Indian brought into the Hudson 
Hay trading post on the Columbia river a piece of Japanese paper 
with a rough drawing of a wrecked vessel on the sea shore, three 
captives in Japanese costume, and the Indians carrying goods 
from the wreck. I'pon the receipt of this very strange commu- 
nication the chief factor ordered the company's vessel to touch 
at Cape Flattery on her way into Pugct Sound, and ascertain 
the truth of the rumor of the wreck <>f a strange vessel at that 
place. This they did, and succeeded in rescuing the three 
Japanese, who had been reduced to slavery by the Makahs, 
bringing them to Nusqually House. From the daily record 
kept at that trading post I have copied the original entry con- 
cerning this interesting event. Under date of June 9. 1^34. the 
record reads, "About two r. m. we heard a couple of cannon shot; 
soon after I started in a canoe, with six men, and went on board 
the I«ama with the pleasure of taking tea with McNeil, who 
{Minted out two Chinese he had picked up from the natives near 
Cipx Mattery, where a vessel of that nation had been wrecked 
not I«»ng since. There in still one amongst the Indians inland, 
but a promise was made of getting the |>oor fellow on the coast 
by the time the I«ama gets there " The only error in this account 
is as to the nationality of the shipwrecked j>cop!e — they proved 
to be Japanese and n«»t Oiinesc. 

In 1X05 a Ja|>enese iunk was stranded near Sitka, after drifting 
helplessly from the coast of Japan to that j>oint. About a dozen 
men were alive on board, and were cared tor by the Russians 
and placed ii(>on an island, which was thenceforth called Japonski 
island. About a dozen known wrecks have occurred on the 
Aleutian islands; two on Oueen Charlotte's island (where the 



JAPANESE ART ON PUGET SOUND. 49 

Haidahs live), and many on the coasts from that point to lower 
California, but none on the coast between Oregon and lower 
California. In many of these cases the Japanese sailors were yet 
alive; for unknown centuries this settlement of the American 
coast by shipwrecked Japanese has been going on — for how long, 
and with what numbers, no one knows, but tf the number in 
past centuries has equaled the last, it need not be a surprise that 
a high civilization is found here in consequence. Much of the 
information relating to these Japanese wrecks has been gathered 
by Horace Davis and Charles Walcott Brooks, of San Francisco, 
and Professor George Davidson, of the U. S. Coast Survey. In 
Mr. Brooks' papers on this subject, read before the California 
Academy of Science, he says: "Small parties of male Japanese 
have repeatedly reached the American continent by sea, cast 
upon its shores after floating helplessly for months. Until recently, 
the survivors must have remained permanently near where they 
landed, and naturally uniting with women of the native races 
have left descendants more or less impressed with their physical 
peculiarities. Such a slow, limited, but constant infusion of 
Japanese blood, almost entirely from male seamen, was un- 
doubtedly sufficient to modify the original stock of all coast 
tribes along our northwestern shore." 

From this long continued infusion of Japanese blood into our 
coast tribes, has come the semi-civilization of which I speak. A 
few shipwrecked Japanese now and then has added strength to 
the slowly increasing breadth of mind — now a Japanese car- 
penter, now a painter, now a boat-builder, now a fisherman, now 
a basket-maker, now a priest, maybe — is thrown ashore, and 
slowly but surely the race is bettered, so that when the English- 
speaking race first met them they were a sedentary race. The 
Puget Sound tribes, like all the northwest coast people, lived in 
permanent communal houses, built on the primitive Japanese plan. 
It was from twenty to thirty feet wide, and from forty to fifty feet 
long, built one story, of cedar boards, well adzed to an uniform 
thickness. It had a front entrance, with from three to five or 
more fire pits and corresponding smoke holes, with sleeping 
bunks on each side of the house on raised platforms. 

The body of the house frequently set in the ground two feet 
or more; the frame-work was of heavy posts, frequently carved 
to represent men or animals, while immense stringers were placed 
on these posts, as long as the house. Several families inhabited 
the same house, and the front entrance was nearly always towards 
the water. The canoes lay on the beach just in front of the 
door, and everything betokened a well-fed settlement of fisher- 
men. The houses were well built, warm, comfortable, and of a 
size, character and design to protect the health of the inmates. 



Till: AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Editorial. 



IVIIKKLS AMI LIGHTNING-KilDS 

Si-vcr.il items have .inpr.ircd in bunks within a few year* con- 
veying the iilea lh.it certain invention* which arc very common 
among historic races might also have been known to pre-hist<>ric. 
or at least to [irotu historic races. Among these inventions the 



»■.*.• "*'., 


g^r>%-] ..*••-. . -*■*„£;- j| 


v fay 


-. o 1 ^ a? 




| ^ < 


r*7~^ -+> 


•. ! 


'-<.-■■• 'r v 


IdW. 


;.;-3^»T|^ 







ANCIENT Mil Bf)(iL Vl'Mir AL lit < DM 




; 


, ;,..;. 


mi-! n--l-it'> .i(- '<■• 
l , h4MiiviiMinU.!Ml:. 


"!',% 


.ill ! the llghtll 
h-elc.iir.ag-w 


i.;-i .!. Mr Iv.irc 
. ;.no»n in .\mriir.i 


..rv! Men Hin--. hi!, 


: >h- 


■ K htn .!.:...!« 


.l™i -II I-.ii. ,«-. 


An .,i:i.:,- m .':■■■, ■ 


■: N \ 


.-lll'.<; l- ,; :i 


.-.,:. !>..■ .|,n:..n ,,( 


tii- 1 r: ii*..:..,.,.:...ii.! 


Il-.ii ! 


■ -.•rii'vin Mr 


. S:..,:.:..ii.l \V..kc. 


in !':.:. ..nn:. m.tke- 




..] : . the wheel 


Hi'! it- 1110:1011 .1. 11 


it j> — iliiv M'av h i. 


Seen 


LIV-i! .is .1 \IH 


!<■! :■; tin. country. 


The ■ .!;■'. t :. .'.n nu- 


e-tn. 




-. miiii* ot the .yni. 


ll- ■! ■■! i u:.' el :•; this 


■ ..hi: 


v .i!. *■• rare tli 


: :t In-. •■1111- ,i.;';t-i- 


•iijii »:; 'h-l .: -.\..s - 


IT "-1 




i-ic. «.-. I...»ivcr. 



WHEELS AND LIGHTNING RODS 61 

give a cut here which was loaned to us some years since by the 
Smithsonian. On this plate there are two figures of wagons with 
a tongue, and a peculiar figure resembling a sphynx on the wagon 
and other figures resembling wheels with spokes, and still others 
resembling human beings playing with lightning. Mow shall 
we explain these figures ? The Zunis had wagons with tongues 
and solid wheels; they also had symbols of the circle with four 
and six parts, and they pictured the lightnings as symbols of the 
nature powers Now shall we say that the wheels with the 
spokes and hubs and the wagon and the sphynx were pre-historic, 
or shall we discriminate and separate the historic from the pre- 
historic, the American from the Egyptian? We ask similar 




questions in rek-rence to the lightning-rod in Egypt. The only 
evidence is that given by the flag-staffs which were placed in 
front of the propyla* of the Egyptian temples. These staffs 
were capped with a sheath of copper, and were about one hun- 
dred feet high. There are inscriptions, which date at the time 
of the Ptolemies — 323-320 B. C. — describing the staffs at Kdfu, 
which read as follow-: "At the main entrance of the life-giving 
horn, there is a pair of tall posts to cut the lightning out of the 
sky." The staffs are made from the wood of the ash tree. Now 
it it from evidence of this kind that some of the Egyptologists 
maintain that lightning-rods were used by the Egyptians. The 
Chinese symbol of the Tai-ki. the Hindoo symbol of the suas- 
tika, and the Egyptian symbol of the Lotus, were very ancient, 
but wagon wheels in America and lightning-rods in Egypt a-j 
anomalies which we should be slow to accept. 



52 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



LIKENESSES IN PALEOLITHIC RELICS. 

By Clarence B. Mooke. 

In your last issue (Nov. 1892) on pages 350-351. |S a letter 
from S. H. Brinkley, attributing to numbers of paleoliths like- 
nesses of various animals. It is interesting in this connection to 
call the attention of voui readers to the (act that Boucher de 
Perthes, in the latter part of his life, delivered in i860, a dis- 
course before the Socictc Imperial d'EmuIation, reprinted shortly 
after in Paris, under the title "De L' Homme Antediluvien et de 
ses Oeuvrcs." On page 66 he says (to give a free translation.) 
M Yes, we have among them in miniature the mastodon, the 
megatherium, the mcgalonix.the paleotherium,etc; these gigantic 
animals impressed the first men as they would have impressed us." 

On page 67 we find, "in our antediluvian gallery you will find 
also different kinds of quadrumana, easily distinguishable by* the 
expression of their countenance, notably when the eyes are 
indicated. 

The faces of men, as far as one can judge by these coarse 
imitations, indicate the white or Caucasian race. More rarely 
one thinks he can recognize the negro type." 

This publication, as well as "De la Machoivc Humaine de 
Moulin-Quigonon,"* also by M. de Perthes, wherein he describes 
certain human remains found with palaeoliths in the diluvium, 
failed to make an impression on the scientific world. 



■o- 



KP1TORIAI. SOTKS. 

pRR-IllsToKir ok l*K<>ro lihroHU . The discoverv of various singular 
looking reins in the mound* of Georgia. Missouri. Tennessee And Ohio 
during the pant few years have not only awakened « onsulcrahle curiosity 
and attention, hut has called out various theories from the an h. ro logists as 
an explanation of them. 1 bene thrones may he divided into t lasses one 
ascribing them to a common et tensive o»min«tc with Me tiro and Central 
America, ami another cla-s explaining them a* the result of <le|»o*its in the 
mounds by Indians in fnt^t Columbian timet. According to the nrst theory 
the copper relics «hn h contain iiiliccs with win*;*, singular bands and 
strange head dresses found at It-'wah. < Georgia, the shell gorget engraved 
with emblems similar to the bas-reliefs ot Central A'neru a. found in the 
Mi Marion mound, at Se\icr*;!Ic. Tennessee, and the shell gorget having 
figures taken from the m<>und* at New Madrid, were only proof* of inter- 
course with \1e\u i»in t»rehiston : times. The two hundred obsidian blades 
and the nnelv molded copper found in the Hopewell mound*, are pro 

•r*i « 1V.4 



EDITORIAL NOTES. 5S 

nounccd as of Mexican manufacture, exactly as the figure of the llama found 
in Ohio, proves intercourse or trade with Peru in prehistoric times. Accord- 
ing to the second theory many of the same relics are pronounced by those 
who are regarded as good authority on archaeological matters, as the result 
of contact with the Spanish and Dutch in early historic times, and ate used 
as proofs that the modern Indians were accustomed to build all kinds of 
mounds, and to place in the very depths of these mounds relics which were 
made in post-Columbian times. Now this discrepancy between the theories 
of intelligent archaeologists and of the collectors shows one thing very 
plainly; namely, that there must be much more careful superintendence of 
all explorations in the future and much more pains taken to discriminate 
betwee n the relics of one age or penod and those of another. It does not 
stem probable to us that the trefoils, the fish, the square armed suastika, 
the cross-hatching on ivory, and the other mediaeval symbols could be the 
mere product of an aboriginal development, and we are inclined to ascribe 
to most of them a post-Columbian origin, and at the same time we object 
most decidedly to classifying modern relics with genuine products of the 
Mound-builders' age, or even with the specimens of native American pre- 
historic art* and calling them all Indian. In the early days of mound ex- 
ploration silver sword-scabbards and iron implements were described as 
taken from the mounds, and wonder was excited by the finds, but per 
sons in these days who excite wonder without pointing out the difference 
are certainly going backwards. We remember distinctly a letter written to 
Mr. Moorehead while these finds were being made, stating that it was ex- 
ceedingly important that the symbolism should be carefully studied, for 
symbolism was a test by which we may decide about the character of the 
relics. Wc repeat this remark now, for we believe that the relic hunters 
and explorers generally need to read books as well as to use the spade. 
Exploration takes time and money and bard work, and is sometimes a thank- 
less job, but unless there is an intelligent and scholarly and well-trained 
mind superintending and mastering the exploration, much of it will be only 
waste labor, and will bring nothing in return that is really satisfactory, but 
confusion will be the result. We think this fully illustrates the importance 
of using the "arm chair," which is so much sneered at by some, as well as 
using the spade, which is so highly flattered by others, and making every 
department and line of investigation work together in bringing out the very 
best scientific results. 

Anciknt Chkrokke Customs. —The old warriors rehearse in the dance 
the dangers they have passed through, the enemies they have attacked, the 
distance they have traveled. It is a custom to give eagle feathers as tokens 
of friendship and in making peace. The Cherokees have a practice which 
they call making ram; seven men are cho en to represent the clans, who 
keep fast while the conjurer is obtaining rain. The conjurer observes 
a strict fast and bathes frequently. On these occasions he speaks a lan- 
guage nut used by the clan and which few understand. When the rain 
comes he sacrifices the tongue of the deer, which is procured for the purj>osc. 
The same custom is found among the Cherokees which prevailed among 
the Altec*: that is. the custom of making a new fire every year. This was 
done in the month of March. The fire is made oy drilling in a dry grape 
vine, in the morning after dancing all night. Seven persons are chosen to 



54 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

perforin this, with the conjurer. After this fire is made, each family in the 
town, putting out all the old tires in their houses, come and get the new fire. 
The number seven seems to have been a sacred number. The doctors sup- 
posed a cure could be made in seven nights. They also exclude from the 
place where the patient is, any who may have been handling any dead body 
or have any ceremonial unc leanness. The Cherokeesare divided into about 
sixty-rive towns ami villages, containing from fifty to five hundred souU 
each. ( >ver each town a chief in appointed, by the inhabitants, to manage 
their concerns. They do not, however, dwell compactly, but are dispersed 
upon the most easily cultivated ground. A town sometimes extends fifteen 
or twenty miles. According to an estimate the Cherokees have held more 
than nine square mile* to every family, estimating five souls to a family this 
would leave about one person to every four square miles. It is supposed 
there are about twelve or thirteen thousand persons, of whom about three 
thousand will move west of the Mississippi. Their territory extends from 
North Carolina to the Mississippi river, and lies within the state of Tennes- 
see and the northern part of <ieorgia. It* greatest length is two hundred 
and tifty miles, and width one hundred and fifty miles. The whole county 
contained 23.500 square miles or 1 ; ,054,720 acres. The color of this tribe is 
not so dark as that of most of our Aborigines. They are a well-formed, 
good-looking people, and have as tine countenances as ran be found in any 
country. Many children, partly descended from the Cherokee*, have yellow 
hair and blue eyes and fair skin* They have good intellects, are apt to 
learn and are capable of civilization. h'rem Dr. /!"#»* enter s an^mnt in th* 
Miiuonary Herald. 

o 

li<M)K RKVIKWs. 

The ii tided Man f Kl Doradot. Hy A. \ . liandchcr. New York 1>. Apple- 
ton & Co. 1 An. 

The story of The (iilded Man. 'T.l l>orado. ' contained in this book, grew 
out of a Peruvian custom. Hc*ides the worship <>t the sun and moon, there 
was a kind of fcti< h worship or water cult b> * huh ea< h lake was made the 
seat of a certain divinity, to whirh gold and emrralds were offered. At the 
inauguration of a new chief, a profession was furm.d of men richly derora 
ted with gold. The chief himself was covered with gold dust, which was 
attached to his U»d\ hv resinous gams. He was taken t«» the lake and 
plunged into the water and washed of hts inrtallw « ovt-ring. as an offering 
to the lake. 

This legend was known to the Spanish and led them to a prolonged chase 
for the fabled HI I>orado. The book contains a description of this chase 
for gold. I he first part contains a cntn a! a< fount "f the adventures of the 
Spanish in the region of (hirxjui. \eragui. New Granada. Venezuela, 
<>nn«'. o. (juito. and mart) other plates in .south A mem a. The second 
part !•> devoted ti* their adventure^ in r londa. New Me*uo. the Kio<ir*nde, 
Colorado, and the region* etst of the maintains called (Jimira. The latter 
part 1* the most interesting, a* \\ gives a somewhat i<»nnc»ted account of 
the wanderings of 1 abe/a de \ at a. of 1 on-nado. and the subsequent occu- 
pation of I'holula up t" the time of the ni.tss.tc re in lsl<>. 

It is a critical narra!;ve and has nothing of the M\lc which its novel title 



BOOK REVIEWS. 56 

might suggest, but is nevertheless a most valuable book. In fact, one who 
wants to know about the* history of the Pueblos and Cliff-dwellers, can 
hardly do without it. The history is carried back to the times of the con- 
quest only, but it throws light on what may have been the previous condition 
of the mysterious people. 

Comparative Philology of the Old and New Worlds, in Relation to Archaic 
Speech. By R. P. <5reg, F. S. A., F. G. S. Accompanied by Copious 
\ ocahularies. London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubncr & Co. 1893. 

This book has an introduction which is both interesting and valuable, for it 
contain* a great deal of information in reference to what ha* been written 
about the origin of the American race, and brings out a great many points 
which have a bearing on the solution of some of the American problems. 
These problems have not been solved by the author, but the factors have 
been furnished which will enable the reader to make progress toward solu- 
tion. The author takes up the different departments, language, race, 
craniology, traditions, geography and geology, and gives a resume of much 
that has been written upon these subjects which has bearing on the American 
problem. He has not used all of the European authorities ami certainly 
has not used the best known and most reliable of American authorities; in 
fart, docs not seem to be acquainted with some of them, and yet, notwith- 
standing, the introduction is very readable and suggestive. In reference to 
the American languages, he quotes Mr. H. H. Bancroft, Horatio Hale, Mr. 
Hyde Clark, and several other authors, but leaves out Dr. D. G. Brinton, 
Major Powell and A. S. Gatschet and other members of the Ethnological 
Bureau. In reference to the origin of races, he quotes Prof. Boyd Hawkins* 
Quatrefages, Wilson. Wallace. Topinard, Huxley, but does not refer to 
Brinton'* books, or even to Peschel, Featherman, Morgan, or even Pritchard 
or Ellis or Tealc. 

He, however, breaks away from the bondage of the autochthonous theory, 
and gives the opinions of those writers who hold not only to the contact, but 
to the peopling of the American continent by Asiatic, African and ancient 
European races. He says that the Polynesian, Papuan and Malay lin- 
gui>nc element is well marked in America, but the Semitic is scarcely 
noticeable. He gives a brief resume* of the views of different authors, such 
as Kev. |. C. Black, and A. H. Saycc, in reference to the ancient Accadian 
race as connected not only with the Ugro-Altaic, or so-called Silnrnan, 
but also with the Chinese. Egyptian, Hittite. This brings the author to the 
position that the "Turanian" may he made to embrace nearly all prc-Aryan 
or primitive Asiatic races, a position which is taken by many, but remains 
to be established, for the term Turanian is a very indefinite one. 

In reference to the original seats, starting points, of the Aryans, he gives 
a summary of the opinions of Dr. Huxley, Canon Taylor and others, quite 
similar to that which has been given in the various magazines, but does not 
accept either the Scandinavian theory, or even the European paleolithic 
theory, but looks to the Thibetan region as the original *eat. He quotes the 
opinion advanced by Mr. C. Stuart Glennie, that there was a great sea, 
which might be called Aniitic Mediterranean or Eurasian sea, which once 
separated Europe from Asia, and included thcUral, Euxine and the Bosphorus, 
bat which broke an ay in some ancient day and made the flood which has 
been handed down in Chaldean tradition. The earliest race?*, according to 



*0 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Qannie, were settled in this region, called Eurasia, but scattered to the 
west, east, north and south, making the "ground" races of the different conti- 
nents. A very pretty theory, but one which needs to be proven. 

As to craniology, the author gives a resume 1 of the opinions of European 
writers, but refers to few American writers. He maintains that the Ameri- 
can race was made up of different races, some of them long heads and some 
of them short heads, but does not identify them by any actual specimens; 
merely refers to the opinions of the different authors. The Mongoliar race 
he calls moderately brachiocephalic The Patigonians and Eskimos are 
dolicbo-cephalic, long heads. The Malays, he thinks, were short heads. He 
speaks of an earlier and later race as apparent in South America, and in 
various parts of North America, the dolicho-ccphalic contemporary with 
the pachydermia, the brachiocephalic identical with the Mound -builders. 
This, again, is a very pretty theory, if it can be proven. 

The American ethnologists perhaps will gain an impetus from the sug- 
gestion, and may conclude that there were different races on the American 
continent, as different as there were on the European or Asiatic continents. 
In that case the term Indian will mean about as much as it did in the times 
of Columbus, and atmut as much as the term Turanian does now, and in- 
clude the representatives from India, Mongolia, possibly north of Europe 
and western Africa. 

With respect to the origin of the American races, the author quotes Canon 
Cook as saying they undoubtedly belong to the Scythian or Turanian; Dr * 
Edkins, of China, that there may have l>cen a Polynesian emigration by 
the Pacific into America; Mr. Hyde Clarke as favoring the affinity of the 
Amazon tribes and those of Guinea and west Afnca, and refers to Mr. W. H. 
Goodyear (spelled (*oodfcllow) as holding that there was intercourse 
between ancient America and ancient Egypt certainly a great many lines 
of communication if these theories are all true- almut as many lines as we 
have of the ocean steamships at the present time. There is a freedom about 
the book which is lomcwhat refreshing after being held down to the limits 
of one continent so long, but whether the freedom proves to t>e an illusion 
or a reality remains to he seen. Some of the linguists say that the list of 
vocabularies which are brought together as a basis for thoc various opinions, 
show a great deal of "misapplied labor." On this point we have nothing to 
say, for we know nothing about it. but the introduction is certainly valuable 
as giving a resume of the opinions of European writers on American sub- 
jects, and mi we commend it to our readers. 

Myths of iwrttit am J AVjws. Narrated with opecial reference to Literature 
and Art. By H. A. Guerher. lecturer on mythology. New York. Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago American llouk Company, i&jl 42& pp. 12 mo. 

The best part of this hook w that which has been furnished by the pub- 
lishers, namely, the art illustrations. There are in the hook full page plates, 
which represent the various »< ene* and events described by ancient classic 
mythology, all of them taken from the best |»aintings and the best pieces 
of statuary. both ant lent and modern. The best of these are as follows. 

Council of the Gods, Raphael; Amor <or Cupid . Martin; Fountain of 
Cvhelc. Madrid. Minerva and Prometheus ThorwaUNen; Ganymede and the 
Eagle. National Museum. Naples; Ins. Guy Mead. Apollo lieUidere. Vati- 
can. Rome K.irne*e Hu 1 .). Aurora. Guido Kent. Ntobe. Vatican; Triumph 



BOOK REVIEWS. 67 

of Venn*. Barrias; Hero and Leander, Bodenhausen; Venus de Milo and 
Mars; Father Nile, Vatican; Hercules, the Infant, Louvre; Fortuna, Vati- 
can; Hercules and Lichas, Canova; Perseus and Andromeda, Coypel; 
Venus with the Apple, Thorwaldsen; Parting of Hector and Andromache, 
Maignan; Thetis with the Garments of Achilles, Gerard; Laocoon, Vatican; 
Circe, Riviere, Nest of Sirens, Beaumont; Penelope, Vatican; j£neas at 
the Court of Dido, Guerin; Cum.xan Sibyl, Domenichino. 

To look through this hook is like visiting a gallery of the best paintings 
and having a friend to tell us about the scenes which are illustrated, and 
having a catalogue in hand to tell us the names of the paintings. 

Very little is said in the letter press about the paintings, for the author 
writes as a lecturer on mythology, rather as a connoisseur in art, but the 
publisher has taken the pains to give us the names of the best and has 
reproduced the works of art in a very beautiful and excellent way. "A thing 
of beauty is a joy forever," and so the book cannot but give great pleasure 
to those who shall purchase it and look at the pictures which are contained 
in it. and who then read the brief descriptions taken from the classic myth- 
ologies of Uuh America and Rome, and the price is low— fti 50. 

Ike Stark in Emrobe and America, A review of the discussion on early 
land tenure. By Enoch Bryan, President of Vincfiines l/niversity, 
Indiana. Boston, V. S. A.: Ginn & Co. 1893. 164 pages. 

There are three kinds of land tenure, only one of which is considered in 
this hook. They are as follows: First, the tenure which came from the 
tribal occupancy, the tribe or clan holding the land in common without 
division or even title; second, the tenure which came from the ownership 
by a community, the ownership coming sometimes by purchase, sometimes 
by conquest, sometimes by mere occupancy; third, the tenure which comes 
from the property in severalty, or ownership by the individual. These dif- 
ferent kind of land tenure have appeared in different periods of progress or 
incident to the different stages of society. The first, the tribal possession* 
obtained in prc-historic times; the second, obtained inearly historic and 
medtarval times; the third is the tenure which prevails at the present time. 

The author takes the middle period, and considers the land tenure which 
was common in Germany in the early and medi.rval times. He takes his 
position against what is called the German mark theory, ami opposes the 
"German ints." but nevertheless brings out many interesting points. It is 
gratifying to find that several American writers are giving attention to this 
subject from the historical and ethnological standpoint, that the vagaries of 
Henry George and other* will he likely to be exploded by this means. 
There are some advantages which America presents for the study, not to be 
found elsewhere. Still it would be more gratifying if these writers would 
take all three of the periods as the object of study, rather than the one 
period, for by this means they would see the real line of social progress 
The subject has l>ccn treated in Europe by such books as Maines. Gommes, 
Seebohm's "Village Communities," Coulange's "Origin of Properity," 
Maurier's "Land Tenure," and others. The books which have been written 
Dy American writers are L. H. Morgan's "Ancient Society," K. Denman 
Roat* book. Professor F. \V. Allen's Essay, and this book, Bryan's "Mark in 
Europe and America." The majority of these hooks, and in fact all but 
Morgan's "Ancient Society," are based upon the study of the middle period, 



58 THE AMKRlCAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and especially of the German mark, the disadvantage of them all being 
that the feudal system is a barrier in their way, and the preceding trilal 
system is so poorly known. 

To one who wants to go hack to the origin of things and trace the line up 
from the prehistoric period and see how the triltal system changed to the 
feudal system, the study of aboriginal life in America is an absolute necessity, 
and the mere study of Germanic laws and customs will continue to be 
unsatisfactory. It is one point in the so-called mark theory, as held by 
Morris, that Teutonic society began in communal organizations, in which 
every family was free and on an equality, but finally changed to the feudal 
state, in which society was graded into three ranks, feudal lords, serfs, and 
slaves. The theory advanced by Coulanges and by President Bryan is that 
property in severalty took place before the feudal times, and that there was 
uo such thing as a communal tenure. The works of Tacitus and Caesar 
are referred to as evidence, but these writers describe the German tribes 
as nomads who were constantly moving in wagons. If they settled down 
for a time, they built them strongholds, wjmh l>ecame vitrified forts, and 
were partially agricultural and partially hunter in their habits. Now the 
point which we make in connection with the tribal state as shown in 
America is, that individual ownership, property in severalty, did not take 
place while the tribal state continued. There was certainly no property in 
severalty in America, though there was a communal organization, in which 
every family was free and on a level, the holdings were distributed to the 
family year after year. These holdings were connected with the villages, 
as the people went to the tields from the villages at certain hours, which 
were called out by the town < ner. This was at least the case among the 
agricultural tnlnrs of the Gulf States. Among the hunter tnl*es of the 
northern states the village was generally the home of the clan, but it was 
protected by the stot kade fort, the men were hunters ami the women 
were the cultivators of the soil. There was equality it* loth of these stages. 
the family was a part of the communal village. If slaves existed they were 
made such l>y lieing taken captive in war; they were merely hewer* of wood 
and drawers of water. 

In the irrigated regions, the canals and the field culture were under the 
control of the 1'uehlo village. In the civilized races, the clan ownership 
continued, but the king had lands, which were similar t » the crown lands, 
which were cultivated by retainers, ami the entire product* went to the 
*upp<irt of the king and his family. In this series we have a pi« ture of the 
rise of the feudal svsteiu in Ku rope, as well as of the land tenure which 
appeared in Grcc< e. The village is the factor which form* the controlling 
center, and whit h gave organic unity. The village was not the home of 
separate land holders, but was the home of the clan. When the kingly 
o trice arose in Greece. Kleisthines introduced landed property, instead of 
triltal or clan iki upam y. This was a cataclysm likely to occur at any 
time, and it did occur in medi.t-val Kuro|»e. There was a similar cataclysm 
in Menco and in Peru, but property in severalty was not reached bv any of 
these nations, nor was there any land tenure among them. It was t»ecaute 
there were v» few free holders that fcuda! despotism arose in I* umpc and 
nif*nari hism m America, but it is the pn>|<rtv in severalty and individual 
land ownership, and the ftermaiicnce of land tenure which is at the basis of 
our free institutions, ami a safeguard against monopoly. 




t OLD UEAII WiTm WtDiC'Nt i .PCs. 



the 



J^mcxxc&n ( ^tttijquariatt. 



Vol. XVI. March, 1894. No. 2. 



THE ORIGIN OF THE IROQUOIS. 

By Rlv. W. M. Bbauchamp. 

To classify nations by language seems one of the safest of 
rules, where the language is clearly known, but it helps us very 
little wi*h prehistoric communities, except as they are connected 
with later days by evidence of other kinds. Many early nations 
can only be distinguished by what they have left behind them. 
The houses they built, the tombs they made, the implements 
they used, the walls they rained, the ornaments they wore, help 
us in some degree to connect one with another. Not always 
with certainty, however, for there was an aboriginal commerce, 
an early warfare, |which somewhat confused a few of these 
things. Allowing for this, archaeology is one of our best guides 
in early historicalresearch among buried nations. 

We will not overlook traditions and customs, or the facts and 
inferences to be gathered from early writers, but there often 
comes a limit where these fail. Then we fall back on the work 
of men's hands. 

It is proposed to use the older means in connection with the 
later, that Iroquois history may be carried back a little farther 
than has vet been done. The villages and forts in which they 
lived have now been so fully examined, grouped and described, 
that this may safely be undertaken. 

In a general way it is now known that the Huron-Iroquois 
occupied, in early historic and prehistoric times, both sides of 
Lakes Erie and Ontario, the River St. Lawrence, and much of 
the State of New York. In this territory were the Hurons, the 
Tiooontaties or Tobacco Nation, and the Neuters, in Canada; 
mod the Iroquois or Five Nations, with the Eries, in New York. 
Farther south, in Pennsylvania, were the Susquehannas or the 
Aodastes, called Carantouanis by Champlain, and quite proba- 
bly the Massa worn ekes on the south of trie Eries. Farther 



62 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

south still were the Tuscaroras in North Carolina, and the 
Cherokees in Tennessee, with some other small tribes. Some 
Iroquois forts appear in Michigan. The general description 
of the Massawomek.es points to a nation ot this family to the 
south of the Eries, whereas they are often identified with the 
Five Nations without sufficient reason. It need not be forgotten 
that there are Iroquoian traces in Pennsylvania far west of the 
Susquehanna. This paper will mainly treat with (he Five 
Nations, but with incidental reference to the Hurons. The 
Eries and Neuters may be considered later. 

Except towards the sea coast and along the Hudson river, 
the State of New York presents few traces of large settlements 
not of the Iroquoian type. Many hamlets and camps will be 
found differing from these, and a migratory population is revealed, 
coming trom many parts, but usually as visitors. Some articles 
suggest the Eskimo. Potstone vessels, along the large water 
courses, were brought from other parts. The many articles 
ot native copper and striped slate were often finished far from 
the places where they were found. Burial mounds are occa- 
sional, while some articles and implements are conspicuously 
rare. In strong contrast with these are the large sites, usually 
in groups, and with their contents much more homogeneous. 
They all have earthenware; many of them are enclosed with a 
bank and ditch, or a stockade, and sometimes with both. The 
arrows are usually slender and triangular; they have imple- 
ments of bone and horn, even more than those of stone; they 
have no grooved axes; they all lack stone scrapers and per- 
forators; as they become more recent they have modern articles 
mixed with the characteristic ones of earlier days. Thev show 
a large population, who were not merely hunters and fishers. 
These are the broad features of Iroquois occupancy, having 
subordinate distinctions in time and place. 

Just how the Huron-Iroquois family originated it is hard now 
to say. Some traditions indicate a western origin, and facts 
might be alleged in support of this. Traditions, however, do 
not agree. The place of its greatest development is less mys- 
terious, for nowhere was the population greater than north, 
south and east ot the east end ot Lake Erie. East ot this, the 
numerous Senecas, and the smaller nations ot the Cavugas, 
Onondagas, Oneida* and Mohawks, formed the Long 1 louse 
of the Iroquois. In a sense, too, all these nations had long 
existed when first known to the whites, having acquired varying 
customs and dialectal differences during their separation. 
Indeed, when Champlain came, the Hurons and Iroquois were 
engaged in a deadly warfare, though not one of long previous 
continuance. Matters were more peaceful when Cartier visited 
Hochelaga. He met people of this family at the mouth of the 
St. Lawrence, but farther references will be made to that part 
of the river. 



ORIGIN OF THE IROQUOIS. 63 

The general grouping of the Huron-Iroquois sites, in New 
York and Canada, will commence on the northwest, with the 
Tionontaties, or Tobacco Nation, whose sites are numerous and 
well known, but largely of the historic age. These are mainly 
in Nottawasaga and Collingwood townships, Ontario, Canada, 
and on the west side of the broad river valley, which separated 
them from the Hurons on the east. Forty per cent of their 
villages were recent. The prehistoric Huron sites are mostly 
on the west side of the Huron district, the later ones more 
easterly, between Lake Simcoe and Nottawasaga bay. A large 
proportion is recent. South of these were the Neuters, whose . 
territory has not been so fully explored, but in their country 
and farther west, are some earth-works which are quite old. 
The Huron sites do not extend far east of Toronto, and there 
are no more of this type until Prescott is reached, on the north 
side of the St. Lawrence, where a small group occurs. Hoche- 
laga, at Montreal, is a well-known site, historically and by 
examination, but little attention has been bestowed on the lower 
St. Lawrence, where the family was first known. 

South of that river is a small group in St. Lawrence county, 
New York, and a very large one in Jefterson county. This 
last had either a large or long occupation. Prehistoric earth- 
works abound, and there are a few ossuaries and mounds. The 
occupants must have formed a distinct nation, and there are 

good reasons for supposing them the ancestors of the early 
taondagas. The upper part of the Mohawk valley had but a 
very few small early hamlets and camps. These were on the 
north side, and not of the Iroquois family. Farther east, between 
Utica and Schenectady, is a large group, mostly or entirely 
recent. There the Mohawks lived, and almost every large 
village site can be dated with certainty. One only has been 
assigned to the distinctly prehistoric age, while Squier says 
that European articles have been found on it. The occupation 
of the valley was very recent, indeed. Another small group, 
mostly of the historic age, occurs in Madison county, where the 
Oneidas lived, and this connects with the historic sites of the 
Onondagas, in the southeast part of Onondaga county. A 
group, commencing in the southwest part of Oswego county, 
runs through the north part of Onondaga, and through Cayuga, 
mostly prehistoric. The villages in the south part of Cayuga 
county are mainly modern. West of Cayuga lake early works 
again appear, mixed with modern, and increasing in number to 
the Genesee valley. A large group appears in Erie county, 
reaching into the adjacent counties on the east. The south- 
west part of the stale is occupied by the largest and most im- 
portant group of all, having strong earth* works, and many 
mounds and ossuaries. The latter become rarer to the eastward. 
Some small groups have not been mentioned here. 

The clearest evidence we have of the migration which pro- 



04 TIIK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

duced one of these groups we find in the case oi the* Mnh.twks, 
and it is embarrassed with no side issues Perhaps one l.irge 
village existed in their territory some time before A. D. 1000, 
but even this is doubtful. Close and constant examination shows 
that early travelers, hunters and fishermen, rarely passed this 
way eastward, preferring the St. Lawrence for its many great 
advantages. There is an utter absence of many familiar relics 
all through the valley, and lor a long time it had few or no 
inhabitants. On the other hand, the large site supposed to be 
earliest of all, is said, by Squier, to have afforded European 
relics, though later explorers find none. There are, however, 
plain suggestions of a knowledge of European articles, and a 
grooved bowlder brings its date near the close of the sixteenth 
century, the lime when these were used. The other earlv 
village site has afforded two brass beads, and many fine exam- 
ples of pottery with human faces and figures on the angles, such 
as were made from about 1600 to 1640. This occurs also on 
Onondaga sites of that period. The remaining villages are 
well supplied with European articles. This agrees with the 
Mohawk tradition of two hundred years ago, that they lett 
Montreal and came to New York in consequence of the cruelty 
and insolence of the Algonquins, according to Charlevoix, late 
in the sixteenth century. It may be remarked that the relics 
of Hochelaga closelv agree with those of these oldest Mohawk 
castles. The two old towns also emphasise the fact so long ago 
mentioned by Megapolensis, that at first two of the three Mohawk 
clans lived together, instead of having a town for each, as was 
the case a little later. They afford also an approximate date 
for the formation of the League, which could not have been far 
from 1600, before or after. It is worthy of remark that the 
Mohawks, living so long on the St. Lawrence, naturally saw 
more of the Hurons, and more closely resembled them than the 
other nations did, as their language shows. The well-known 
story of their flight from Canada first appeared in print nearly 
two hundred years ago, hut was known much before this. The 
familiar statement of Pyrheus as to the date of the formation of 
the league need not Ik* repeated. Critical examination ol the 
ground shows that the Mohawks entered their country at this 
recent time. The situation of their first towns show that safety 
was of prime necessity. One of these was four miles south of 
the river, in a very strong position; the other Jen miles north of 
the stream, in an equally strong place. It was the same with 
the Oneidas and Onondagas, though in a less marked degree, 
they being also exposed to and tearful of the wrath ot the 
Hurons and Algonquins. Every fort ot these three nations, 
occupied about or a little before K>oo, was secluded and strong. 
It is interesting to go over these sites and see the gradual 
increase of European articles, and the tendency to come out ot 
their hills and nearer the water courses, as they felt stronger 



ORIGIN OF THE IROQUOIS. 60 

and more secure. The advance in some of their own arts is 
also plainly marked. With new materials and tools, they did 
things before impossible. 

The Oneidas were closely related to the Mohawks, who some- 
times called them their daughters, and were probably near 
neighbors to them in Canada. Their homes may have been a 
little above the rapids of the St. Lawrence, with two groups of 
forts from which to choose. Like the Mohawks, they found an 
unoccupied territory, and retreated to its highest hills. If Gen. 
Clark's identification of the fort which Champlain attacked in 
161 5 is correct, as seems probable, it was built by them and not 
by the Onondagas. The Fenner site is a curious one, and the 
quadruple stockade, which seems to have had no postholes, 
must have been built out into the shallow pond. The village 
was in the Oneida territory, and had in it a large bowlder, twelve 
feet long, which seems to have been the first Oneida stone. At 
the very time Champlain attacked this village, the Onondagas 
had a iort many *niles away, on the east side of Limestone 
Creek. This seems the oldest Oneida town, though there may 
have been another towards Cazenovia Lake. In their neigh- 
borhood there were no earlier villages to add to their three 
clans. From this secluded spot they gradually moved north- 
ward, tarrying long at several spots near Munnsville, but on the 
east side ol Oneida Creek, and at last reaching the lower lands 
at Oneida Castle in 1756. The story that they dwelt near 
Oneida Lake at an earlier day is without foundation. The 
People ot the Stone certainly lived at first near some conspicu- 
ous stone, but at last a bowlder of no great weight served as 
their symbol. 

As a people, the Onondagas also entered upon a vacant land. 
In all that large part ol Onondaga county, where they made 
their constant homes, no nation had ever dwelt before them, and 
early camps and relics are very few in number. Their name 
came from their homes, and meant the People ot the Great Hill, 
and this name thev could hardly have had at an earlier day. In 
general it is very easy to trace their successive seats after their 
first settlement. One site alone is a little perplexing, because, 
while it is reputed to be recent, the writer has never found any but 
early relics there. It may have been earlier or later than the 
end of the sixteenth century. Of another nominally prehistoric 
Iort there is no doubt. It was certainly occupied at the begin- 
ning ol" the seventeenth century, being apparently the oldest of 
the group. After Champlain 7 :* invasion the Onondagas retreated 
farther up the valley, to a more commanding situation— in fact, 
several of them; but gradually moved down the valley again, 
on the west side, until they came to Indian Hill, where the 
French found them in 1654. They formed outlying villages to 
the westward, and at last transferred their fort to the Butternut 
Creek, where it was burned in 1696. Their cabins gradually 



66 THE AMERICAN ANTIQl'ARIAN. 

went thence to Onondaga Creek, some miles west, where their 
town was on the east side of the valley for some years, the com- 
plete transfer to the west side occuring before 1750. 

These were the changes in the three last centuries. On the 
strength ol some relics it may be inferred that most of the Onon- 
dagas came Irom teflerson county, New York. The barbed 
bone fish-hooks ol New York have been found only in these two 
counties, and then but sparingly. One from Jefferson county is 
of uncertain date, as are two Irom Onondaga, one of which may 
not have been barbed. One is from the Onondaga village ol 
1600, whence the age of the others may be inlerred, all being 
plainly ol European pattern. There is a plain suggestion of the 
peculiar Oncndaga pottery in some from Jellerson county, and 
some peculiar pipes belong to both counties. The early village 
mentioned, and some others near it, is connected with the earlier 
Mohawk sites by this potterv. The large, grooved bowlders 
are also most common in this Onondaga group, fixing their age, 
and the sequence ot sites is perfect throughout. But the Onon- 
dagas had eight clans, while the Mohawks and Oneidas had 
but three, and the inference is that they adopted others, either 
before or alter their migration. If there were villages not too 
far off, it is quite probable that they took these in almost at once, 
or bv degrees. Their own story is that thev migrated many 
hundred moons ago, Irom the north bank of the St. Lawrence, 
and that straggling bands first came, followed by a national 
removal. The Bear and Woll clans sprang from the ground at 
Oswego Kails; the Kel and the Turtle from Seneca river; the 
Deer and Eagle from the Onondaga hills; the Beaver and 
Heron t Snipe) Irom the earth at I^ike Ontario. Along the 
Seneca river were some early towns ol Iroquoian type. Again 
the rare barbed hooks play their part, as well as other relics. 
On two village sites opposite each other on the river, these have 
been found, and the presumption is that they were not lar ap»rt 
in time. The other earth-works and stockades in the vicinity 
may have been earlier, or mav have furnished clans lor the new 
nation in the highlands. That part ol the Onondagas came from 
|efler>on county bv way ol the old trail across the loot ol 
Oneida lake, and others bv wav <»! Oswego river is quite proba- 
ble, but there are no intermediate earth-works north ol these. 
An earlv name ot a creek in teller son count v means, Where ike 
IrtHjuon League :;•</> tormed % perhaps an agreement preliminary 
to the migration; and Pouchot said, in tyfo, that the Iroquois 
declared that thev c ame nut ol the ground at one ot the branches 
ot Sandy Creek. It attacked bv the Canadian Indians, they 
might well put a diffuuk wilderne>s between them and their 
enemies, and seek a reluge in the great hills. The migration 
ol these three Iroquois na'ions seems the direct result of the 
Canadian war. 

Whether the earth- works in western Onondaga and the 



ORIGIN OP THE IROQUOIS. 67 

middle of Cayuga had anything to do with the origin of the 
Cay u gas, may be questioned. The forts and relics differ from 
th -.• Onondaga types. Some seem recent, and others quite old. 
They might be ascribed to the Andastes' migration, with rea- 
sons lor and against this, or they might have founded some 
Cayuga clans. When first known, this nation lived on Seneca 
river, and on the lake whence they had their name, and may 
long have done so. Like the Senecas, they seem to have 
parted company with the Canadian Iroquois at the end of Lake 
Ontario, thus causing an early variation of dialect and charac- 
ter, but they had not long dwelt on Cayuga lake. Their main 
seal at first was farther inland. The difference of language 
becomes a factor here. The Mohawks and Oneidas are most 
alike in speech, pointing to a recent division of their people. 
The Onondagas differed much from all, and had probably long 
formed a very distinct community. The Cayugas and Senecas 
were quite different in speech from all these, indicating a more 
remote separation at the west. All three of the western nations 
used some euth-works in historic times, though preferring the 
stockade as a rule. 

The Senecas undoubtedly came from the west, being near of 
kin !o the Eries, whom they afterwards conquered, and it is 
quite probable their language was the same. While there is 
no doubt that this large nation had long lived in New York, 
some importance is to be attached to their tradition that they 
sprang out of the ground near the head of Canandaigua lake. 
Some relics, especially a number of grooved bowlders, a little 
southeast of that lake, point to the end of the sixteenth century, 
which may have been their beginning as a united nation, a 
coming out of the ground into the lower lands, whence their 
name was not derived. They were the people of the Great 
Mountain, hardlv a proper term even for their recent stronghold 
on Boughton Hill. But there were early forts and villages in 
their earlier resorts, where the name was applicable. 

All who have read their known history will remember that 
the Senecas formed two great divisions throughout recent limes, 
Th eir clans were more numerous than those ot the other nations. 
at various periods being from nine to about a dezen. The 
natural supposition would be that the three clans of the Bear, 
Wolf and Turtle were the recognized nation at first, as without 
these no business was done, and that the others were added 
from time to time. When the Senecas proper came out of the 
higher hills, it is quite likely that the people of the lower Genesee 
united with them, placing that river between them and the 
Eries and Neuters. Such a union must have preceded the for- 
mation of the League in the case ot those clans which were 
represented in the Grand Council. On the conquest of the 
Eries ;md Neuters, the Senecas formed settlements in the Gen- 
esee vallev, and even farther west, and while there are early 



G8 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

earth-works there, most of the numerous villages from Seneca 
lake to the Genesee river are of modern days. 

The Senecas were the last to enter the League and the most 
indiflerent in it. In spite of their numbers they had but a mod- 
erate representation in the Grand Council, this being based on 
the attendance at the first one, in which the Mohawks and 
Onondagas showed most interest. The strong Senecas felt in 
little danger from the Hurons, having the powerful, and then 
friendly Eries and Neuters on the west. 

When first known, all of their villages, four or five in num- 
ber, wer- in the west part of Ontario county, and some of these 
were occupied much longer than was the Iroqui* custom. At 
a later day they spread both east and west, as the earlier clans 
may have done. It is to be noted that all the nations may have 
hacf many nameless hamlets, and temporary fishing villages were 
common. 

Champlain seems to distinguish the Senecas from the Iroquois, 
though he may have meant only the Mohawks by the latter. 
The Dutch always, and the English partially, made two divis- 
ions, the Maquas and Senecas, including the four western nations 
under the latter name. Champlain called Lake Ontario that of 
the Kntonhonorons, and on his map of 1632, makes one group 
of the Iroquois east of the fort he attacked, and several groups 
ot the Antouhonorons, In the note to this he is said fo have 
waged war against the latter. It is also said, "The Antou- 
honorons are fifteen villages, built in strong positions, enemies 
to all but the Neuters. Thev and the Iroquois wage war 
against all but the Neuters." There seems at that time no clear 
knowledge of the Iroquois League. 

In the grouping ot sites for historical purposes, it must be 
remembered that Iroquois villages were not long occupied, and 
that each nation seldom had more than from one to live in use 
at a time. The lower number will do for the Onondagas and 
Oneidas; the higher lor the Senecas. These were occupied 
anywhere from ten to twenty years, on an average. A fair 
estimate may thus be made of the length ot Iroquois history, 
though by no means with exactness. An early date is impossible. 

We have seen that early Iroquois accounts make them weak 
at first, and we find that they sought safe retreats in earlv days, 
but there is a vast amount of vague writing, giving them an 
ancient and general supremacy over all the nations. This came 
at last, but not until thev had the white man's weapon*. They 
are represented as receiving wampum tribute trom the Indians 
along the Atlantic, a* thev did, but not in earlv days. Not a 
solitary shell head, such as was used in belts, has ever been 
found on an Iroquois site older than l(>20. The Mohawks 
naturally had it earliest of all. Indeed, Iroquois legends make 
Hiawatha the discoverer of wampum, and he mu*t have been 
living about lOoo, or later. Occasionally a large columella bead 



THE CHOCTAWS IN MISSISSIPPI. 09 

appears on an early interior New York site; more rarely a flat 
head made Irom the Unio shell, but the small beads are never 
lound until the white man's articles appear. Neither has any- 
thing which would form a substitute ever been discovered. The 
ancient wampum belts are a delusion. 

Space has not permitted some details to be given which aftect 
the foregoing conclusions, often strengthening them materially. 
It may be enough to say that they are the result of many years* 
study, long and close examination of sites and relics, a good deal 
of travel, and much correspondence with intelligent workers. 
There was no orderly drooping of the nations in their later 
seats, such as David Cusicfe describes, and such as man)' later 
writers have believed. There was little of development of one 
nation from another. The Five Nations were early offshoots 
from one parent stock. Most of them were fugitives, seeking to 
save their lives, turning at bay, and asking what they could do. 
In union they found strength, desperation made them brave, 
weakness taught prudence, and through their misfortunes they 
were conquerors. 

o 

THE CHOCTAWS IN MISSISSIPPI. 

By John A. Wat kin*. 

At what time the Choctaws settled in Mississippi is as much a 
mystery to-day as it was three hundred years ago. The oldest 
traditions are so vague and uncertain that they are not entitled 
to any confederation, though historians of a recent date have 
attempted to solve the problem, and have reached conclusions 
apparently satisfactory to themselves, if not to their readers. 
While they have clung to the pole, the dog has disappeared; 
even Alabama — "here we rest" — has been degraded as mere 
"vegetable gathers," while the Alabamas exist only in the name 
of a state. 

The Choctaws owned and occupied more than half of the most 
valuable and fertile lands in Mississippi, and were an old nation 
when DeSoto penetrated the country in 1537-42, to the Chicka- 
saw bluff, the present site of Memphis. His line of march was 
harrassed and retarded by several Indian tribes, including the 
Choctaws, which frequently compelled him to change his route, 
though he finally succeeded in reaching the point of destination, 
which gave him the first view of the Mississippi River, and made 
his name memorable as a discoverer. 

I became familiarly acquainted with the tribe in 1813-14, dur- 
ing the Creek war, at which time, in the fall of the year, they 
came into Jefferson and other southern counties in large num- 
bers — the women to pick cotton and the men to hunt in the 



70 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Louisiana swamps, where game, at that day, was very abundant. 
Arrived in a neighborhood where they could find employment, 
sapling's were cut down, posts firmly planted in the ground and 
trees, such as the poplar and sweet gum, were stripped of their 
bark, and in a brief space of time they had comfortable huts, 
three sides being securely covered by the bark, while the fourth, 
fronting the south, was left open. Another indispensable addition 
was made — in a log or the stump of a tree a hole was cut about 
a foot deep, in which they pounded their corn, after the husks 
had been removed by being stepped in lye, and of corn thus 
treated they made delicious hominv, a diet in great favor both 
then and now with southerners. When young, I often partook 
of their homely fare, and though they were not noted house- 
wives, I was not then critical in matters of diet. I could eat 
their hominy and jerked venison with a relish, and even at that 
early day the pipe was presented to me with as much gravity as 
if it had been presented to a man of distinction. 

The Indians were famous hunters. In the winter they passed 
several weeks cither on the Yazoo and its tributaries or the 
swamps of Louisiana. When a sufficient supply had been 
obtained, their venison having been jerked, the skins dressed and 
the oil extracted from the bear, \( they had been so fortunate as 
to kill one, their stock in trade was taken to market and exchanged 
for powder, lead, blankets, and such articles of dress as were 
suited to the women. I have frequently been present when some 
of the hunters ret u met! from an excursion to the Louisiana 
swamps. They were proud of their success, and were fond of 
relating their adventures, the j>crils they had encountered, and 
the number of deer they had killed. During the recital no 
interruption occurred, nor was a question asked; but when the 
speaker came to a pause, and sufficient time had been given for 
the collection of such little fragments as had l>ecn overlooked 
or forgotten in the narrative, then, and not till then, did the con- 
versation become general. They were good talkers and patient 
listeners, and in the latter trait they might serve as an example 
to those who affect a higher order of refined and intellectual 
culture. One word as to the dress of the men. which consisted 
of a breech clout, buck-skin leggings, moccasins and blanket. 
The moccasins were frequently ornamented with beads or the 
quills of a porcupine. Occasionally they might be seen with a 
deerskin hunting-shirt. 

In lS2o they ceded to the I'nited States, at Dokc's Station, all 
their lands in the southwest, lying between the Mississippi River 
and the Ya/.oo, which gave rise to the *' net proceeds'* claim, of 
which I shall speak later on. In 1 830 they voluntarily sold the 
balance of their lands to the United States and removed to their 
present home in the Indian territory, leaving, however, about 
2.5<*> of their tribe who refused to emigrate, as, if dissatisfied 



THE CH0CTAW8 IN MIS8I8SIPPI. 71 

with their new homes, they would have no means of returning 
to those they had abandoned. Few of those who remained have 
prospered; some, however, have made a partial success in agri- 
culture and stock raising; the majority are mere day laborers, 
barely realizing enough to supply food and clothing. Although 
schools have been established for their education, under the able 
superintendence of II. S. Halbert, Esq., their hostility to the 
English language is as violent to-day as it was in the beginning 
of this century. In my youth I met many of them who could 
speak our language, but they spoke it rarely, and not then from 
choice. They only made use o! it when there was no other 
medium of communication. They were passionately fond of 
jewelry, both men and women. The former, many of them, wore 
a silver ornament suspended from the nose — thin and circular, 
rather larger than a half-dollar; while the women wore ear-rings, 
chiefly silver and generally circular, also bracelets of silver. I 
have frequently seen ornaments of the same kind for the ankles. 

About 1 80 1 the government applied for and obtained the 
privilege of making a road through the nation, to facilitate the 
transportation of the mail between Nashville and Natchez, but 
the grant was coupled with a condition that the Indians should 
have the exclusive right to all the ferries and public houses 
established on the road, which was a point of great interest to 
them, as it proved a vast source of profit, and was evidence that 
in business and diplomacy they were seldom overreached. As a 
precaution against having the mails tampered with, the bags 
were thickly studded with heavy brass nails, which made them 
proof, without great difficulty, against attempted robbery. For 
many years the mail was carried through the nation without 
accident or unnecessary detention. The Indians ridiculed the 
precautions against robbery, which I have often heard them say 
"made the Indian knife laugh." The esteem of the Choctaws 
for the white man is embodied in a single word, "nahullo? "be- 
loved people," which they still apply to those who have robbed 
them of their lands and taught them many of the evil habits 
which are practiced in the name of civilization. It is not often 
that we find men who kiss the rod and hail as nahullo the hand 
that strikes the blow. 

The Choctaws were a moral people, until by association they 
contracted some of the vices of the white man, such as drunk- 
enness; but when I first knew them they were honest and truth- 
ful. I have trusted many of them and was never deceived. They 
held in contempt and loathing the man who spoke with a "forked 
tongue." Association may, to some extent, have had its influ- 
ence on their character, but none of these came under my obser- 
vation. They had but few laws, but these were rigidly enforced, 
especially against homicide, which was rarely suspended or 
condoned, and then only under extraordinary circumstances. 



I m 



THE AMKItK'AN ANTIQUARIAN. 



Minor offenses were sometimes punished with stripes. When 
quite young, I saw a man whose head had been closely shaved 
for the violation of some law, but what the offense was I did not 
learn, as I was then too young to hazard an inquiry. 

In my youth I formed a very close friendship with two Indian 
boys, both of whom were my seniors by a year or two. We hunted 
in company, and they taught me the use of the bow and arrow. 
We played together in all the games common in those primitive 
times; wrestled, ran foot races, and became quite expert in the 
celebrated ball game, for which the Indians had such a passion 
that I have known them to lose blankets, clothing and all their 
personal effects on the chances of a game. This ball game was 
a national institution, in which all the males participated, no 
matter how degraded or elevated their positions. Here chief 
and plebean stood as equals. It was an exciting game, but not 
being strong or active, I never became an adept. 

In the winter of 1S24-5, there was a large encampment of 
Choctaws on the lands of Div.d Hunt, in Jefterson county, near 
my residence. As usual, the women were engaged in picking 
cotton; the men had just returned from a successful hunting ex- 
pedition. They hail sold their deer and bear skins, jerked venison 
and bears' oil, bought blankets, powder, lead and other articles 
of prime necessity, including an abundant sapply of fire water 
(tshko homi I, and as a sequence all of them, except one. got 
beastly drunk. It was a custom among them that one of their 
number should keep sober, to take care of those who were in- 
capable of taking care of themselves, hence the adage, "one 
sober Indian," which at that day was in use among white men 
in like condition There was another preliminary that was never 
departed from. The women. l>efore the wassail Ixrgun.took from 
them their guns, knives and tomahawks, so if an affray should 
hap)K*n, they would be in no condition to inflict injury on each 
other. A young squaw attempted to take from my friend Jim 
his knife, but he resisted, and by accident cut her on the arm. 
The wound was not serious but l>cing neglected, gangrene was 
the result. In the meantime Jim came to see me, and from his 
manner I was sure that something had happened to disquiet him. 
I questioned him as to the trouble; his reply was: "They shoot 
me." "Shoot you, what for?" "Mary die." Ami then he told 
me what I have related above. I advised him to run away. 
He looked at me uith surprise, and then added, "they shoot 
John" (his brother*. The girl died the following day, and the 
morning afterwards |im was shot, though mv father and several 
other planters, with whom Jim was a special favorite, attended 
the execution, to Inrg or buy him off but their pleadings and 
oflenngs were rejected It was the [aw. The guilty were never 
known to avoid the penalty by flight, for had they done so. their 
nearest relative would have had to take his place. This sum- 



THE CHOCTAW'S IN MISSISSIPPI. 73 

mary mode of enforcing the code, "blood for blood," made 
homicides exceedingly rare. 

About the time Jim was shot, two men of the same camp had 
a quarrel, which, I think, grew out of the recent execution, 
which they agreed to settle with the rifle. They fought at the 
distance of fifteen feet. At a word, both fired, but with very 
different results — one was shot through the heart, the other was 
unhurt; but the survivor had to pay the forfeit of his life, being 
executed the next morning. Here mc n sought to kill each other 
by agreement, but this did not suspend the prompt execution of 
the law — nor would the survivor have attempted to evade it, 
even had he been without relatives to take his place. 

An eld gentleman, now a resident of this city, but formerly of 
Port Gibson, Miss., told me that in his youth he and many other 
boys had formed a very strong friendship for an Indian lad 
named Joe, with whom they daily associated, but in an evil hour 
Joe got drunk, a general fight was the result and in the melee 
Joe killed one of the Indians, either by accident or design. This 
he immediately communicated to his young friends, and told 
them that he must go to the nation, surrender to the family of 
the murdered man, and suffer the penalty of the law. Their 
persuasion against such an act had no influence — he only obeyed 
a law, so ancient and impartially executed, that it had grown 
into a sentiment. To resist its execution would have been a 
moral death. Finding that persuasion had no effect, they applied 
to Judge McDougal, the father of my informant, who, to gratify 
the boys, put Joe in jail, where his young companions daily 
visited and played with him, and did everything they could to 
divert his mind, but without effect. Finally they yielded to his 
wishes and obtained a release. He immediately returned to the 
nation and arranged the time ahd place of execution, came back 
to Port Gibson, played a few days with the boys, and, on the 
appointed day, accompanied by them, went to the plantation of 
Dr. Magruder, a few miles in; the country, assisted him in 
digging his grave, into which his blanket and other effects were 
thrown, seated himself at the head of the grave, drew a rude 
cross on his breast with red earth, and was shot through the 
heart. The boys covered him over with earth. The law was 
vindicated — "blood for blood." 

The wife was a slave to her husband, but she did not recog- 
nize it as a degredation. On the contrary, she took pleasure in 
performing those menial offices, which in their opinion, would 
lower the dignity of the man. They cultivated the little patch 
of potatoes and pindeers, and performed all those menial duties 
that are usually imposed on servants. I have often seen the 
women with a large hopper basket on the shoulders, sustained 
by a strap across the forehead, containing all their worldly effects, 
supplemented with a papoose securely fastened on the top of this 



74 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

load, and carrying her husband's gun, while he walked in ad- 
vance, with all the dignity of a sovereign. The woman simply 
performed a duty imposed by a custom so hallowed by antiquity 
that its performance was a pleasing duty. 

The Choctaws were not only a moral, but after a code of their 
own, a religious people, as will be clearly shown in the following 
letter from my correspondent in Atoka, I. T. 

Atoka, Indian Territory, June 14, iSijj. 

Now as to the tiucstion you wish answered. I will do the l»est I can to 
answer, so far as I nave been informed and what I have learned from them 
myself. Sou. "What the l»elie( wa> of the old Indians as to their future 
state" Well, they believed in a or*;if sfltnf, a sf>irit world, in immortal' 
if}'. The hunting ground was the "spirit ground. " of which there were two 
different rdaccs. The one was for the tfood; those who were kind, hospita- 
ble, truthful and brave, and who we retreat hunters. This place was peace, 
happmc*- and contentment, with cver\thim; plentiful; where thc> met the 
bravest warriors anil all who were worthy to co in and (mis-css the land. 
where there was plenty of game, which was easily killed. The < lunate was 
such as could not be found anywhere else for its mildness. They could not 
sutler from cold and sickness. Now. on the other hand, the other place or 
"hunting ground" was miserably poor, and everything that was undertaken 
was sure to end in disapitointment. I \ en the trees were -ojmor that hardly 
a bow and arrow could l>e made out of the wood. All the tountrv hail the 



appearance 0! a narrcn wa-tc. inc came, oi course, w.h \ cry iMKir, ami 
the people were like skeleton*, with a « are-worn, duat.jMMnted look in their 
face-, and alwav* tiuii^rv. That was the ii!.u e for tnose who were mean. 
Cowards, I.*/ \ . with "forked tongues ' that taiked tuo wu\-,ou whom nohod) 
could depend. The word "happt was prefixed b\ the whites. The\ < ailed 
it the "spirit hunting ground.' As v«>u will see. then- was a idai e for each 
cla-s. I lut when one died, ^»*1 or bad. the\ were treated alike. They 
l»eheved that the spirit ol the dead lingered around tin- b«mie and relation* 
for three days after they wire b irud or put away. All ot their |«»^cSMon«» 
were put m the tfrave *»th them. c\« cpl pon:e- and a dog. » »ne eat h id 
these was killed at the s 'r,t\c that the\ mu;ht U- of use to them on the r 
journey to the huntm.: ground. After tins, the !aiii'I\ a:.*\ relation** gathered 
certain kinds «»! runt* and herb*. ot whu h thev made a tea to wash and 
ttalhe their face- and head*, that :t mu'ht dmc t!.e -pint- «.!t. and to takr 
their •<»urne\. 

I • mild write manv thin.:-. but must stop. This trail. turn was no* man 
ufat ted bv In!, I'eter 1>. 1'iti l.!\i.. I know, from the tact t'.a*. :,v.\t\\ a!. tr.e 
tr»l»e ha\e the -amc tiadiho-i. s«!»r bc!:cve in tran-m^rat on, h::t if! o! 
the five tribe- ot whu b wi an- the dc^end-tnt^ Mv t -cut-of-. was^ath 
ereil f r « *m rc« «»l;ecfon-, ot tiling* related bv themse'.\ •■- a! ?«;\ fattier -. who 
who a puhin mart and a pre. 11 'icr tor thirty ti\r v« ars. M u.\ people vi-ited 
him and my ;itn !es. t'ie I'i?> l A\ :.«■. the Mails and \ ■'!••■:!!* I a «•• knew 
Lct'.ote. 

The writer of the above letter was the daughter of Israel Fol- 
som and the niece of David Folsoin. one «»f the Choctaw chiefs. 
Their father was a white man, their mother an Indian woman. 

I never witnessed the burial of but one Indian, and that was a 
child. I saw none of the preliminary ceremonies, but for several 
days afterwards the women came and seated themselves round 
the grave, drew their blankets over their heads and chanted in 
low notes what I sup|>osc was a requiem for the dead. That 
chant has long lived in my memory . but the words were so ob- 
scure that they have only left a faint trace. 



THE CHOCTAWS IN MISSISSIPPI. 75 

In early times, when white traders were permitted to enter the 
nation, it was very common for them to choose an Indian wife, 
and from these alliances some of the first families arc descended, 
such as the Fulsoms, Pitchlyns, Males. Lefleurs and others. These 
amalgamations were not only tolerated, but encouraged ; under 
no circumstances, however, would the Choctaw amalgamate with 
the negro. I never knew an instance of the kind, and this fact, 
I am assured by Mr. Halbert, superintendent of Indian schools 
in Mississippi, holds good at the present day among the remnant 
of the tribe that refused to go west. He says that none of them 
have ever mingled their blood with a negro. Polygamy was 
justified on the ground that every woman should have a husband, 
but as the casualties of war often reduced the number of men, 
the discrepancy had to be supplied by a plurality of wives. A 
very convenient hypothesis. 

I here introduce a letter received in the summer of 1 891 from 
my friend II. S. Halbert, giving an account of an old-fashioned 
Choctaw wedding in Jasper county, Mississippi : 

Gam ANDViLl.r, Mississippi, August Ic>, 1&;I. 

Dear Sir According to promise. I will give you some account of that 
old-fashioned Choctaw wedding, to which I was an invited guest. I will 
here first say that all our Mississippi Indians that are converted to Chris- 
tianity now marry after the style of white people. This old-stvie marriage 
was between Miss Susan Simpson and Mr. Oliver Chubbee. When I arrived 
oik the marriage ground, which was al>out nine o'clock in the morning, I 
found a large crowd of Indians present, and extensive preparations were 
gomp on in the way of cooking up the big dinner, which was to follow im- 
mediately after the marriage ceremony. The place was a kind of glade in 
the w«km1s. Pots, kettles and pans were there in profusion, and a number 
of Indian women were immersed in the culinary operations, preparing l>ecf ( 
bread, coffee, paska ban a ha, tauch lobuna and other Indian dishes for the 
marriage feast. About eleven o'clock the long table was set, and it was 
announced that the marriage would now take place. Miss Susan then 
nitwleMly made her appearance on the spot selected for the ceremonv. A 
sha«'. was spread upon the ground, upon which she seated herself, and four 
men then took another shawl and held it, one at each corner, over her head. 
tialbtna, halbena 'presents, presents) was the crv that now resounded on 
every side. Forthwith many come forward and threw their presents on the 
shawl upheld by the four men. These presents consisted of bundles of 
calico. nM>ons and other female paraphernalia, and even some little money 
-whatever, in fact, the donors < hose to give. The presents, however, are 
not for the bride, but for the female relations. They are intended as a kind 
of remuneration to their relatives for their assistance in cooking the mar- 
riage dinner. When all the presents had been deposited on the shawl. Miss 
Suvitn arose, walked off aUuit fifty yards, where some of her female friends 
were assembled, and again seated herself. Here the presents were brought, 
taken |tf»**eMUon of by some of the women and distributed among Miss 
Susan's female kmfolks. At the same time that Miss Susan had seated her- 
self on the sha»l, and while the men were holding the other shawl over her 
heat), Mr. Chubbee came forward within at>out twenty feet of her, spread a 
blanket i>n the ground, seated himself upon it, and quietly waited for the 
passive part he was to perform in giving a finality to the marriage cere- 
mony. When Miss Susan rose from the ground, some half a do/en men, 
relatives of Chubbee, came forward and seated themselves in a line on his 
left. The male relatives of the bndc now, in succession, approached the 
patient bridegroom, addressing him by the title of relationship created by 
the marriage, and then delivered a short complimentary or congratulatory 



7U THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

addrcsv When he ti.nl wound up hi* talk to Chubbee, lie then moved 
along the line and shook hands with each ••ne<»! Cnubbec's seated kinsmen, 
railing hnn by the term of relationship « retted by the marriage to which 
the km>inan responded simply hy the assenting term A/ah. I or mM.im e. 
A shook hands with \\, and dimply said. Am^thi ma (inv unt lei, to which \\ 
responded with A/ah. The Choctaw term* of relationship and their appli- 
cation are ver\ intricate and perplexing to a white man. t will here give 
you in Chm taw the very short congratulatory address of one old Indian 
named <ic>tge Washington to uh\er Chubbee: "Xttak chashfv h^k.tn-* 
Sii/'itrt i hi a ham hi It hka tok akinit kid himak a annumpa hi'/t/'Pa , hi 
phi\ hi /ixhk*'. Savuf* * hi aha/tt hi It hi'ks." "In former day* I called you 
Suhavi. hut now 1 put a sacred name upon you I call you Sayup." I no- 
ticed that only two or three women came forward and spoke to the bride 
groom, and to him alone, for thev paid no attention to the other men seated 
on the ground. ( asked one <»f the men afterwards why it was that so few 
of the women came forward, and that they spoke to the bridegroom alone, 
ignoring all others, and even to the groom they only uttered the terms of 
relationship. "Ohovo at takshi ffhna" •"Women arc very modest"* was his 
reply. When the men had finished their little congratulatory talk to Chub- 
bee, the marriage was complete, and bride and bridegroom were now one. 
Without any further ceremony dinner was now announced, to which all 
hands forthwith repaired and did it full justice. As a general thing, after 
the feast comes the big dance, which, however, was omitted on this occasion. 
Generally, too. an old-fashioned Choctaw wedding takes place about sun- 
set, after which comes the big feast and the night long big dance. In 
another feature Chuhbce's wedding differed from the usual old style, for, 
commonly, the couple sit side by side, and the wedding gifts are place*! 
upon the head of the bride and arc instantly snatched off by her kin! We 
all remained upon Chubhee's marriage ground until about the middle of the 
afternoon, when all went home. 1 do not think Chut>hee went near his bride 
or even looked at her until we all got ready to go home. 

The above description will serve to give you some idea of the old-fash- 
ioned Choctaw weddings yet in vogue in Mississippi. And now I <N»*e by 
expressing mv sincere wish that my friend Chubbec arid his wife tnav ex* 
penence all possible hapinness while floating in their canoe down the stream 
of hfc. Yours very truly. II. S. HAI.HKKT. 

Before closing this article, I must be permitted to refer to the 
ancient name of New Orleans, when it was selected by Bienville 
as the future site of the future capital of the French. Those 
who inhabited this country centuries before the French landed 
at Bilo.xi were neither traders nor agriculturists, except to a 
limited extent. Among some of the tribes war was a )>astimc; 
while others, more peaceful, rudely cultivated a few acres of 
ground in corn and tobacco, but they depended chiefly on game 
and fish for the common necessaries of life. They all spoke a 
different language, hut had united for mutual protection against 
the Comanchcs and other war-like tribes, whose depredations 
occasionally extended to the Mississippi. Of the various tribes 
in this association, the Choctaws alone exist as a nation at this 
day. On the arrival of the French this settlement was broken 
up and the inhabitants scattered, though a majority accompanied 
the Choctaws to Mississippi, and because so thoroughly amal- 
gated that they lost their identity. The Choctaws were a ben- 
evolent j>eople, and extended their protection over fugitives from 
any other tribe ; or, as in the case of the Natchez that escaped 
the French from the slaughter on Black river. A few of the 



THE CHOCTAWS IN MISSISSIPl I. 77 

Choctaw* may still be found on the Hay of St Louis, the women 
engaged in making baskets and gombofeele, while the men hunt, 
fish and play the loafer. The little community that was settled 
here gave a name to their principal village, quite as appropriate 
to-day as when it was adopted by the early inhabitants. The 
name is " Balbancha," which literally means " the place where 
there is unintelligible talk." The words of Choctaw, a language 
that has given names to many little creeks that empty into the 
Gulf of Mexico, and to towns, creeks, counties and rivers in 
other parts of Mississippi, are nearly all of them so corrupted 
that none but an educated Choctaw would decipher their mean- 
ing or give them a correct interpretation. 

At the French or Poydras market a few Indian women may 
be seen every day, seated on the banquet, engaged in selling 
baskets, gombofeele and sassafras roots. The latter is a delight- 
ful substitute for tea. I prefer it to the best China, though the 
doctors say that it is detrimental to the blood, if freely indulged 
in. These women never solicit a purchaser. If you want any 
of her articles, lay down your money and take up your purchase. 
They rarely speak to a white person, or even to those of their 
own race. Father Roquet lived among them several years, and 
brought many of them into the Catholic church, but when they 
come to die I have no doubt but what they see in the future the 
spirit hunting ground, and anticipate the pleasures of the chase 
— the deer, bear and buffalo are waiting for them ; they will have 
nothing to do but to enter and kill. 

I might make additions to this article without prejudice to 
the subject, but enough has been said to show the strong points 
in the character of the Choctaw. I will only add, in conclusion, 
that they were firm in their attachments, strong in their preju- 
dices, and slow to forget or forgive an injury. They would not 
voluntarily submit to any restraint which would deprive them of 
entire freedom ot action. This sentiment pervaded all ages and 
conditions ot life. They were sovereigns in their own right, and 
only yielded to their fate when they were powerless to resist the 
inevitable. 



78 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



JAPANESE ART ON PUGET SOUND. 
By Jamks Wickbrsiiam. 

1< oNTlNL'BtJ.J 

They possessed a form of ancestor worship, coming to them 
from China, through the Japanese. Before the doors of their 
great houses they erected totem poles to preserve the traditions 
ot their ancestors, and as historical records of their heroic deeds. 
They made beautifully carved and painted columns emblematical 
of the virtues of deceased children and parents. They had the 
Japanese idea of a future state — an underground place for the 
dead — not a hall* but a general resort for the spirits of all the 
dead. They held slaves, like the Japanese, and like them were 
polygamists and believers in a shamanistic system of religion. 
In short, they possessed the same primitive form of civilization 
that the Japanese had a few hundred years ago. 

As this infusion of Asiatic blood and ideas slowly but surely 
produced a broader mind, a higher civilization, one capable of 
improvement within itself, it neeci not be surprising that the idea 
is now advanced trat the civilization of Mexico, of Zuni, ot the 
Clirt-dwellers, of the Mo'ind-builders, of Central America and 
Peru, is the outgrowth of this very Pugct Sound life, possibly 
suddenly assisted by a larger influx of wrecked vessels, or a 
migration via Behring's Straits and the Aleutian islands. 

Humboldt fixed Aztlan, the ancient Aztec starting point, 
north of 42° north latitude, or north of the southern boundary 
of Oregon, while Prescott, the historian of the Spanish con- 
quest, agrees that the Aztecs came from the northwest coast. 
From a similarity of languages, of relics and works of art, I 
believe that Aztlan was on Puget Sound, in the State ot Wash- 
ington. That here grew, flourished and strengthened that 
strange yet Roman civilization that blossomed and then decayed 
in the valley of Mexico! The great Algonquin race of Indians, 
extending irom Montana to Maine, including the most highly 
cultivated tribes of the Ohio region, preserved a record of their 
migration from the Columbia basin, from Puget Sound, from 
Kir land! While the Mandans held an annual celebration in 
honor of their ancestors that crossed the great ocean in a boat, 
and thence came from the region of the Columbia to their old 
home on the upper Mississippi river. In short, the theory is 
now announced, that as this constant addition ot new blood from 
the semi-civilized races of Eastern Asia, raised on the north-west 
coast of America new tribes of like civilization; that they, like 
swarms of bees, went forth to seek new meadows— one to the 
Mississippi and Ohio region, and others to the pueblos of Ari- 



JAPANESE ART ON PUGET SOUND. 



7V 



zona and the plains of Mexico. The effect of all this is quite 
apparent in the education of the Puget Sound tribes. The Nus- 
qually numeration enabled these people to count any number 
ever needed or used by them. Their system was exactly like 
that of the Chinese and Japanese, and was based upon the dec- 
imal plan. A comparative view is given to show the similarity: 



ENGLISH 

< >nc 

Two 

Three 

Four. 

Five 

Six 

Seven 

Eight . 

Nine 

Ten 

Eleven. 
Twelve 

Thirteen 

Fourteen. 
Eiltcen. 

Sixteen 

Seventeen , 

Eighteen. 
Nineteen. 

Tuenty 

Tuentvonc . .. 

* 

Tuentv-two . 
Twenty-three. 
T went v- four. . 
T»entv-hve . . . 
Twenty -six. . 
Twenty -$cven . 
Twcnty-ei^ht. 
Twenty-ninr.. . 

Thirty 

Furty 

Mtv 

Sixty 

Seventy 

Eighty'. 

Ninety 

One hundred . . . 
Two hundred.. . 
Three hundred. 
Four hundred 
F"ive hundred.. 
Six hundred 
Seven hundred 
Flight hundred. 
Nine hundred 
<>De thousand. 



I It IN !>.*».. 
JlEl 

Erh iEr» 

San (San)... 

S/ (Suj 

Wu (Woo). . 

Lin iLi'o) 

Chi (Che i. . 

Pai!\'ii 

Chin (Chin). 

Sh I Shu I 

Sh-i 

Sh-crh .. . 
Shsan . . . 

Mi-s/ 

Sh-wu 

Sh-hn 

Sh-chi 

Sh-pa 

Sh« hui 

F.rh-sh 

Erh-shi. . . 
Erh-*h-crh 
Eth-sh-san . 
Erh-sh-s/. . . 
Erh-sh-wu 
Erh-sh-lin. . . 
Erh- sh-chi. . 
Erh-sh-pa. . . 
Erh-bh-chin 

San-^h 

S/-»»h 

\\ u-sh ...... 

I.tn-sh 

Chi-sh . 

I'a-sh 

Chin sh 

1-pai 

Erh-pai 

San-pai .... 

>/ pai 

Wu-pai 

Ein-pai 
Chi-pai. 

I'a-pai 

Chin-pai 

I rh ten . . . 



1; 



lAfANBHl.. 

Ichi 

. Ni 

. San 

• * J I I I • ■ * ■••••••• 

. <io 

. Koku 

Shchi 

Machi 

. Ku 

. lin 

. hn-ichi 

jin-m 

. Im-san 

. lin-shi 

Im -go 

in-roku 

m-shchi ... . 

Jin-hachi 

lin ku 

Ni- Jin . 

Nipn-ichi 

Ni-nn-ni 

Ni-jin-san . . 

Nijm-shi .... 

Ni-jin-tfo 

. Ni-jin-roku. . . 
Nijin-Nhchi.. . 
Ni-jm-hachi . . 

Ni-jin-ku 

San-jin 

Shi-jin 

tio-Hll 

Koku-iin 

Shchi- jin 

Hachi-jin 

Ku-jin 

Ippiaku 

Ni-hvaku 

San hvaku 

» 

Shi-h\aku. . . . 
C,<>- hvaku .... 
Koku-hyaku. 
Shchi-hyaku.. 
Hachi-hyaku. 

Ku -hvaku 

Sen 



xt S*J\ ali v. 

Ducho. 
ISallc. 
"Tlcwch. 
'Bos. 
Tslats. 
:Tse-l.'i-che. 
I soaks. 
iTka-chc. 
|\VhUI. 
! I*a-duts. 

Paduts yuchq-ducho. 
Paduts-yuchq sallc. 
Paduts-yuchq-tlcwch. 
Paduts -yuchq-bos. 
■ Paduts-yuchq-t<dat*. 
Padutsyuchq-tsclache. 
Paduts-yuchq-tsoaks. 
Paduts-yuchqtkache. 
Paduts-vuchq-whiil. 
Sal-la-rhc. 

Sal -l.'ichr yuchq-ducho. 
Nallachc-yuchq-salU-. 
Sal-l.iche-yuchq-tlewch. 
S.il-lachc-yuchq-bos. 
SaMache-yuchq-tslats. 
Sal-kiche-yuchq-tselache. 
Sal lachc-yuchq tsoaks. 
S.il-lache-yuchq tkahe. 
Sal-lache-yuchq whiil. 
Sta-whuchc. 
Sbos-suchi*. 
Islats-suchc. 
Tselachc-uchi . 
Tsoaks-uctu*. 
Tkachc-uchv. 
Swhul-achc. 
Ducho-subquatctu . 
Sallc-suhqu.itcht'. 
Tlcwch-sul>quatchi. 
HoN-subquatrhc. 
T-l.its-subquatchi'. 
T<clachf-subquatchi. 
r>(»aks-buh<)uatch( . 
I katch</-sutM|u.itctu . 
Whul-subqu.itchi . 
Paduts-subquatctu . 



Ol these three Mongolian systems of numeration the Nus- 
quallv is the nearest perfection, if we accept the English as 
perfect For "eleven 4 " the Chinese and Japanese say **ten-one t " 



80 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

with the conjunction understood, while the Indians say "ten ami 
one." For "twenty" the Chinese and Japanese have not got 
past saying "two-tens," while the Indian has coined a new word 
to express that number, having as a root the word for "two"- - 
"sal-l.icho." This is true of all the combinations of ten up to 
one hundred. From that number to i 9 ooo the combinations of 100 
are the same in the three languages, except for the last— 1,000 — 
and for this the Indian says "ten hundred," instead ot having, as 
do the Chinese and Japanese, a word tor "thousand." 

The Nusqually system ot numeration is a fair sample of the 
civilization ol the northwest coast tribes. The Nusqually lan- 
guage is rich in words to express the finer shades ot thought. 
It is a cultivated language, ana shows quite plainly that at some 
point there has been a contact with a much higher race, possi- 
bly in Japan, possibly in Aztlan. They have diflerent words 
for a small bush, a sapling, a half-grown tree, and the monarch 
of the forest. No shrub, grass, or thing of plant life escapes 
them, and practically, as a people, they are much finer botanists 
than we are. Every bay, cape, camping place and foiling 
ground has its name. Every bird and animal is known and 
named. Their practical information in the line of natural history 
equals that of a scientist. They have a grammar — not written, 
but systematic, and the Nusqually language is equal to that of 
the Aztec — equal to the highest of the so-called civilized lan- 
guages of America- almost equal to the Chinese, which has 
been in process of polish for 3,000 years or more. 

Then, too, the Nusqually was a trader, a man of financial 
views. Their system of government was based upon this idea 
--the possessor ot wealth, of canoes, houses, totem post*, slave*, 
and personal property, was a man ot influence- the chief. They 
received buffalo robes and horns from the Yellowstone plain*, 
obsidian from the Yellowstone nark, red pipe stone from Minne- 
sota, canoes from Haidah land, copper trom Alaska, and jade 
from Asia. He sent inland dried fish and other commodities, 
and a yearly exchange took place with other tribes. 

That the Puget Sound Indian is made of finer material than 
a stupid savage is apparent trom the ability he possesses as a 
linguist. Nearly every Indian on Puget Sound can talk trom 
three to a half dozen different dialects or languages. One of 
my Indian friends talks and writes English; he also talks Nus- 
qually, Chehalis, Klicketal, Quinault and Skokomish, and I do 
not know how many more Indian languages. Another talks 
and writes English, and talks Nusqually, Austrian, Cowichan, 
Chinook, and pretty good Spanish. He acted as interpreter in 
lud^e Stallcup's court the other day- he translated in the Sla- 
vonian tongue, and was pronounced the most prompt and ready 
interpreter of that difficult tongue that had yet been in that 
court. I do not Ix-lieve there is an Indian on Puget Sound that 



JAPANESE ART ON PUGET SOUND. 81 

cannot talk three different languages. No Mich a race can be 
called stupid or ignorant. 

As boatmen and fishermen thev can not be excelled. There 
is no finer boat built than the Haidah canoe — the model for the 
northwest coast. Its lines are perfect, and it is made so large, 
strong, sea-worthy, and yet light, that they fearlessly go far into 
the open ocean to attack the whale. I have seen csooes from 
Alaska at the wharves in Tacoma. As fishermen they excel 
all races; their fishing year is all that is needed, aod they had 
located the halibut and seal fisheries and frequented them from 
ancient times. They have names for each fish and each kind 
of animal life in the waters. In short, the Nusqually race was 
far above that of ignorant savages; they were a stationary peo- 

Cle, capable of self-support, and would eventually probably have 
een the base of a migrating tribe of semi-civilized people — but 
the white man's civilization came, and they melt before it like 
frost before the morning sun. 

The Nusqually people never equaled the Haidahs in stone 
carving, but I have seen nothing from the Haidahs to excel the 
horn bowls of Puget Sound for artistic form and for practical 
utility. The Nusqually, like the Apache and Navajo, was a 
weaver, and they yet make fine bags, head bands for baskets 
and other light weaving. Formerly they made fine large woolen 
blankets of mountain goat and dogs 9 wool. Thev used the 
same wheel for spinning wool that their southern Athapascan 
brother did, and also the same identical loom for weaving. The 
blankets have the same intricate patterns and colors also, and in 
every respect the work seems as finished and artistic as the old 
Apache, beiore they used American wools. 

Thtir basket work is not only artistic, but thoroughly prac- 
tical. Baskets of such texture and firmness were made by the 
Nusquallies that they cooked lood in them — boiled venison, fish 
and fowl, cooked roots and boiled water. The baskets are of 
all shapes and sizes, and of many colors and designs, and for 
every purpo?»e from boiling water to carrying wood. The 
baskets of Nusqually equal the combined efforts of the Zunis, 
Navajo and Pimas. Nothing like them can be made by the 
white man. They made fine feather-work clothing also, like 
the ancient Mexicans; thev made of moccasins ot tanned skins, 
and painted their tanned skin clothes with many colors and de- 
signs. They made a!l kinds ol matting, like the Japanese, for 
carpels, beds, hangings and coverlets; they carved fine pipes of 
stone; worked j.ideite, one of the hardest minerals; and made 
arrows so perfect, and out of such beautiful and rare materials, 
that many seem to have been intended for use as jewelry. The}* 
carved stone statuary of remarkable taste; one specimen found 
on Puget Sound weighed 600 pounds, while many smaller and 
much better specimens have been found on the sound and on 
Columbia River. Some of these nieces are really artistic, and 



82 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

are equal to the effort of even a civilized man. The stone 
carving of the Haidah is not equalled in that line in aboriginal 
America. 

The Puget Sound Indians — the northwest coast tribes — were 
carvers in stone, bone, ivory, horn and wood; they were fine 
boat-builders and fishermen; they lived in permanent communal 
houses of solidity, warmth and taste; they occupied a fortified 
and palisaded fort in time of danger, and they had a civilization 
very little inferior to the old Japanese. They painted, carved, 
spun and wove, and had the Japanese idea of a future state. 
Their language was strong and rich. It shows unmistakable 
proofs of contact with a higher civilization; its polish came from 
the Chinese, through the Japanese. Before the white man came 
with his over-mastering vices they were prosperous, happy and 
on the road to a typical and higher improvement. If treated as 
were the Japanese or Sandwich islanders, they were as capable 
of absorbing as much ot the Engl^h civilization as the Hawaians, 
probably as much as the Japanese; but treated as " wards of 
the government," they are lading away and will soon be lost in 
the mists of the past. 

Of this type was Seattle, the flathead; of the type that built 
the mounds of the Mississippi, the tiocallis of Mexico, and pre- 
sided, a flathead monarch, over the ancient government of Peru, 
not as finished as they, but on the road to that height. He was 
too strong, too wife and loo well educated to be pictured in 
Philadelphia as a badge of ignorance, ana I respectfully protest 
against such a use of his broad, Mongolian face. 



(RAFT SYMBOLS AND RELIGIOUS EMBLKU8 93 



CRAFT SYMBOLS AND RELIGIOUS EMBLEMS. 

By Stephen D. Peet. 

The enquiry whether there were any craft symbols in Amer- 
ica during prehistoric times is now before us, having been sug- 
gested by the study of the various u winged creatures" and "danc- 
ing figures" as well as by the ordinary relics and ornaments. The 
word "craft symbol" has, to be sure, a triple use, each use of it 
being significant. The term in one sense indicates that there 
were various employments which marked themselves upon the 
relics, thus making a differentiation in them according to em- 
ployment ; another sense indicating that there were offices 
and positions which made these very relics the symbols of power 
and authority; still another sense shows that there were certain 
religious organizations which devoted the same relics to sacred 
purposes, and made them emblematic of a still higher thought 
and meaning. As in modern society, the various secret orders 
and associations, especially that of Free Masonry, will take the 
tools which were used by a trade or craft and make them sig- 
nificant of social and moral qualities and call them craft symbols, 
so in primitive and prehistoric society, the very things which 
were used in war, in hunting, and in domestic life, were taken 
and made significant of the honors which belong to the warrior, 
hunter, or priestly class; not only this, they were also taken and 
raised to a higher level and became badges of their divinities 
and symbols of their religion. 

This is not saying that there was actually a division of labor 
or any separation of primitive society into craft guilds or labor 
organizations, but it is saying that there were conventional sym- 
bols which were significant of certain honors, the sacredness of 
the symbols consisting in the fact that they were often trans- 
ferred to the divinities which were worshiped, thus making them 
not onlycrift symbols, but also religious emblems. 

The subject is interesting, for it shows how strong and how 
prevalent was the religious sentiment, for the very commonest 
weapons, such as arrow-heads, spears, knives and bows ; the 
commonest articles of dress, such as moccasins, leggings, belts, 
headgear, and the ornaments and decorations on pottery and 
basket-work, were turned by it not only into the symbols of 
office, but also into the emblems of divinity. In treating these 
emblems, then, we shall take the very relics which have come 
down to ur< from prehistoric times, and shall show that many of 
these came by a gradual, but very natural process, to be devoted 



S4 TUB AMKRK'AN AXTHji'AltlAN. 

to some official religious purpose and significant of some hidden 
thought or custom, the association of these various relics with 
the various religious emblems and ceremonies proving that they 
had become the conventional symbols which were used as en- 
signs of the various classes — either civil, military or religious — 
into which native society was divided. These conventional 
symbol* were not alt alike, for some of them had more mytho- 
logic significance than others, yet they all seem to have been 
raised above their common use to a level where they were more 
or less sacred. 

Illustrations of the subject are numerous. They can be drawn 
both from the practices of the living and the relics found with 
the dead, for the same sentiment which would give a mythologic 
significance to an object 
carried or worn in a dance 
i>r feast or any other re- 
ligious ceremony was 
quite likely to preserve 
that object and make it 
perpetuate the same sa- 
cred thought or mean- 
ing Let it be noticed 
here that there are many 
mythologic figures pre- 
served by the Indians, 
Mmin.t-huilder*. ChfT- 
ilnriltn. Pueblo*, rtvil- 
i/eil races which have 
i-nnnti'ted with them as 
their equipments and 
[ctmm.i1 ornaments vari- 
ftv. : -K—f' 'i-t-i-i //.-NfiirrM. tiu-i articles which were 

in common use; but there were other article*, such as masks, 
feather head-dresses, decapitated heads, -sicreil rol.es and 
other paraphernalia which were uncommon, the difference be- 
tween the secular and sacred bring as perceptible in the prehis- 
torn as in the histr.nc races. We propose to take these figures 
anil study first the article-, which were undoubtedly symbols 
and afterwards in others which were less symbolic in character 
and see if they were not all regarded as in a measure sacred and 
so worthy I" be called "craft symbols.'' 

We begin with the masks and wings seen on these figures 
and ask whether they were not ornaments which were attached ■ 
lo the pers.ui of the priests or medicine men. resembling in this 
resjject the animal heads, hortis anil sktn, which were worn by 
the natives in their sacred dances, also resembling the raven di- 
vinity of the Mania Indians. This raven was not exactly an 
ordinary bird. f.»r he had manv human attributes and the power 




CRAFT SYMBOLS AND RELIGIOUS EMBLEMS. 86 

of transforming himself into anything. His coat of feathers 
could be taken off or put on at will, like a garment. The bird 
is a very prominent symbol among the tribes of the northwest 
coast. There is a bird whose size darkens the heavens, whose 
body is the thundercloud, the flapping of whose wing causes 
the thunder, and who sends out of its mouth bolts of fire to kill 
the whale for its food. It lives in the highest mountains, has a 
head as sharp as a knife, and a red tongue which makes the fire 
The lightning fish is about his waist. When he sees the whale 
he darts the lightning flash into its body. Many of the north- 
western Indians have a performance in honor of this thunder-bird. 
They have legends that it was the creator of man. Mount 
Edgecombe, near Sitka, is the home of this thunder-bird. The 
Tinneh Indians say that the world first existed as an ocean. The 
bird flew down and touched the water ; whereupon the earth 
arose. The belief in the thunder-bird extends from the mouth 
of the Columbia, in Oregon, to Sitka, Alaska, and from Behring 




>V- '- Wl*u'd Fiyui 



Straits to the western shore of Hudson's Bay— two thousand 
miles. The legend crosses the Rocky mountains and is found 
among the Dakotas. Here the dwelling is on the summit of a 
beautiful mound that opens to the four cardinal points, each 
with a doorway. The Cherokees had a legend of the mythic 
hawk, though this differs from the thunder-bird. It is probable 
that the winged figures on the gorgcti represented this mythic 
hawk. Another winged figure is presented by the Mida songs 
of the Ojibwas. These represent the Great Manitou in his wig- 
wam or tent, the arch of the sky being the covering of the tent. 
The song is interesting, for it represents not only the winged 
figure, but the sacred medicine bag and a peculiar implement 
which resembles that held in the hands of the dancing figures 
from Georgia, which may be regarded either as a rattle or a 
battle ax, though the same kind of an instrument may be seen 
in the hands of the Mahkcy God depicted in the Dresden Codex.* 
It has been maintained by Dr. Cyrus Thomas that the custom 
of representing human images with wings issuing from the 
shoulders is European or Asiatic, and must have been introduced 
into this country by the Spanish. It is true that angels and 

***** ptal* or I>r*«a>B rndr>. 




80 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

cherubim arc in the scriptures represented with wings on the 
shoulders, and so were the priests and chief divinities of the 

Assryians and Babylonians. The Phoenicians represented their 

warriors or their divinities under the images of animals standing 

erect, with wings issuing from the shoulders. Winged figures 
were also common in 
America. There was a 
myth among the Aban- 
akis that wings and a 
mask were given to one 
of the culture heroes or 
divinities, which he could 
put on or off as he chose, 
and it may be that these 
gorgets represented this 
myth. The priesthood 
of the bow among the 
Pueblos was a winged 
figure. What is more, 
the feathers of the wings 
were in the shape of knife 
blades or spear heads, but 
they were symbols of the 

nature powers The bend of the Mexican divinity was surrounded 

by similar knifc-bladcd feathers as a symbol of his majesty, making 

a sort of nimbus of feathers around the conical miter. Fig. i. 

Winged figures were also common in Central America. M. I label 

has described many of 

these. One is a bird 

carrying a human body 

in his beak. The body 

hangs below the beak, 

and has serpents trailing 

from its hedd. Then- is 

a flaming sun upon tin- 
breast of the bird. Th< 

bird's legs are in tin 

shape of human arm-, 

the fingers in the shape 

of claws, a disk in the 

claws, a collar about the 

neck. Another bird is 

also represented as bear- 
ing a human skull in its #v---"n*"»tf nw>. 

beak, human arms and serpents' heads trailing from the skull. 

These were evidently the symbols ol the nature powers or the 

sun, but they show how the wings, beaks, human heads and arms 

were mingled together as symbols. 




CRAFT SYMBOLS AND RELIGIOUS RMBI.EMP. ft? 

There is a figure of Montezuma near the sacred spring in 
Aritora which embodies a myth. This figure has the claws of 
a bird, arms in the shape of wings, staffs in either hand, by the 
side is an upturned tree with the sun hanging to the roots.* See 
Fig. 5. Arrow-heads and bows were also used as symbols of the 
divinities of the hunters, at least they were so used by the Pueblos 
and Cliff-dwellers This singular people had animals for their 
gods, exactly as the hunters of the east did, but they exalted 
them and made them sky divinities. Here, then, wc have in the 
different parts of the country those mythologic creatures con- 
sisting of biids, animals and human 
beings with wings and masks at- 
tached to them, showing that to 
the priestly class all of these ob- 
jects were sacred. The same was 
true of the animal figures and the 
fetiches. 

Mr. Frank Gushing has spoken 
of this and has shown that these 
fetiches were tribal possessions and 
that they embodied the sacred 
myths of the tribe. The holder of 
the path of life, the sun-lather, at 
the creation endowed his children 
with his own power, and gave them 

Ithe rainbow for a bow and the 
lightning for an arrow, a shield like 
*- r ff ' unto his own, a flint knife, the 

" - magic war knife. These children 

»„. ■.-jikimmi jr«-™-. M (hc face of |he cartn wjth thcjr 

knife and were borne down upon their shield into the cavern in 
which all men dwell. They built a ladder to the roof of the 
first cave and led men forth into the second cave, which was 
larger and not quite so dark, into the cave where was twilight, 
then through the opening to the surface. Here there was an 
island in the midst of a great water, for there had been a great 
flood, ami there were strange beings and monsters of the deep. 
They placed their magic shield upon the wet earth, and laid 
upon it the rainbow, and across it the arrows of lightning. The 




■n 






ihl. upturn 


dire*. 




[ma 








"•B.'S 


a f reian ran •houli 




mtii p*>pi- and 




d r»- no rain 






(boat-red fire 




Id fall and b* 




r»iurn u> bl« klnidnm 


nnu 


a modarn myth, bi 




-trhlng* on lb 






«nm 


aor Bcurva a-lth, ■" 






pTid«jil j anrirnt. He- repot 


otlm4 


U Trlbm. WaalilDKi 


..n. I). t\. 




. eomapoddenoa, pat* W 


• A 


«idil»nr lablrl ha 


l*»n fnuli 


d nn lb* mrdn'tiftr ( 


a»taUan Sprl r». T»nn. 


wltka 










* Klowah moiinil-. I 


la tot* 






asx 




•■f !'• 








ihomonxd-iiiat h.T. 


«rew 


»rh whirh 


■ repreiWBInl 


on Ui* lutrrllw-1 figure. HwW 



sh TUB AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

surface of the earth was hardened. They struck the animals 
with their lightning and changed them to stone, and these are 
now their fetiches. These animals arc not only guardians of the 
six regions of the celestial geography but are mediators between 
men and the divinity, and by means of the prayer plumes they 
make known the wishes of men. Grand sacrifices of painted 
prayer sticks are made by the medicine societies at the full 
moon, but the worship reaches its highest significance when the 
fetiches arc regarded as the gods ot the chase or hunt, the game 
gods or prey gods. On this account arrow points of flint or 
chalcedony are bound with white shells and coral beads, with 
cotton cords over the heart, the color and material of the arrow- 
heads and beads, as well as that of the fetich, being signifi- 
cant. The position of the arrow-head and knife is also signifi- 
cant. On the back it gave power over an enemy; under the feet 
it hid the tracks of the wearer. The color ol the animal was sig- 
nificant of the part of the sky. 

Another illustration is found in the fighting figures which may 



:-> 



be seen on the inscribed gorgets from the mounds of Tennessee. 
They show that the military class had their emblems as well as 
the priestly. These figures are worthy of study, for they resemble 
the winged figures on the copper plate* in the Ktowah mounds in 
many respects. They have the same kind of wings issuing from 
the shoulders, the same kind of bands about the legs and arms, 
the same d>a[>er work and girdle about the body, the same kind 
of necklace and ear- ring, and probably had ihesaim kind of mask, 
a mask in the shape of a bird's beak, for they have the birds' 
claws as feet and birds' tails as drapery. They have weapons in 
the hands, one in the shape ol a knife and another in the shape 
of a sickle, and are contending with one another. Their attitude 
ts very expressive, lor the foot is firmly planted on the ground, 
the knee is bent forward, the right foot is thrown gracefully back 
as if tn the attitude of hunting, while the other figures have both 
legs partially drawn up as if m the attitude of dancing. The at- 
titude- ol tin- hand- are also peculiar In the case of the dancers 
one hand is thrown up and has a mace or battle axe in it, the 
other hand is thrown down and carries a decapitated head, while 
in the fighting figures one hand is in the attitude of striking a 
blow hi the face, the other in the act of brandishing a long- 
biaded knife. 



CRAFT SYMBOLS AND RELIGIOUS EMBLEMS. «l 

It is to be noticed here that flint knives and "sickles" resem- 
bling those in the hands of the fighting figures have been found 
in the stone graves, showing that either thi divinities really were 
equipped with the same weapons as the human warriors or that 
the warriors themselves personated the mythical divinities in 
their dress. See Figs. 6 and 7. 

Divinities with wings prevailed among the Pueblos. One 
was the god of the scalp-taking ceremonials, the great white 
bear; another, the mountain lion; the third is the knife feathered 
monster. His dress consists of the terraced cap, symbolic of the 
dwelling place among the clouds; his weapons are the great 
flint knife of war, the bow of the skies, the arrow of lightning 
and his guardians or fel- 
low warriorsarcthegreat ^ ■ V ' 
mountain lion of the f ' 
north and upper regions. \ 
Here then we have the '^ 
craft symbols of the hun- 
ters and the warriors, r "'- - _A-** 
such as the knife, spear, w\ j. 
bow and arrow, the f~~ 
shield, scalping knife, the 
beads, turquoises and all 
the personal ornaments 
turned into symbols, 
placed upon the fetiches 
and raised to the level 
of the sky, their original forms being almost lost in their sym- 
bolic shape. 

Winged figures were also retained through the next stage of 
development and appeared among the civilized races. Here the 
wings and masks, the disk and bow may be recognized again, 
but they arc in a different shape and with a different combina- 
tion, though they are still more significant as religious symbols. 
They were placed over the doorways to the sacred shrines or 
temples; while within the shrine were tablets covered with the 
symbols of the sun, of the sky, of the cardinal points, the nature 
powers, in the shape of crosses, birds, faces, and various conven- 
tional signs, every figure in the tablet being significant; the whole 
tablet containing in itself the record of the religious cult. 

The resemblance of these winged disks over the temples or 
shrines to the winged circles which are so often seen over the 
entrance 10 the sacred temples in Egypt is very striking, but it 
does not prove that there was any connection; for the wings were 
plainly symbolic of the clouds and the disk of the sun, and grew 
up into .symbols of the nature powers very naturally, just as the 
winged figures of the Greeks and Assyrians grew into symbols 
of the kingly power, and yei were at the same time symbols of 




1*1 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the rain clouds, for Jupiter I'luvius was represented by the human 
head and the wings with trailing or drooping feathers. 

This growth of symbolism out from the commonest articles 
of use is one of the most interesting facts in archxology. Take 
the leaf-shaped implements, which arc found in such great num- 
bers in the ground in nests, as an illustration. These were not 
mere rejects from a quarry, but were probably the treasuries of 
the arrow-maker, stored beneath the ground for the sake of the 
convenience, and in that respect would be taken or regarded as 
the craft symbols nf the arrow-maker. Hut it is singular that 
these same relics arc often found in the mounds so associated 
with other relics as to prove that they were actually symbols of 
a religious practice or cultus. Leaf-shaped implements were 
found in the Hopewell mounds, eight thousand in number, (heir 
position showing that they were designed as a sacred deposit, for 
in the same mound there were skeletons which were covered 
with various symbols of office, one of them being the skeleton 




of a chief, clothed in copjicr, with horns upon the head and many 
other symbols on his body. In another case an altar was made 
of leaf-shaped implements arranged in tiers; on the altar was a 
body which had been arrayed in its insignia of office— copper 
bands upon the head ami various weapons near the hand. The 
body had been partially cremated upon the altar. Kvery part 
of the altar and every article about the body was more or less 
symbolic." 

Another illustration has been drawn from the plastering trowels. 
Gen (iates P. Thrust on, in his book on the antiquities of Ten- 
nessee, has referred to the trowels which were taken out of the 
mounds and the stone graves ol Tennessee, says that they prove 
that plastering was a trade among the Mound-builders. There 
is, in the same book, the picture of an idol with a trowel on its 
head. Thi- trowel proves that the tools which were used in 
making pottery, and perhaps in decorating the inside of houses, 
became sacred and was >o placed upon the head of the house- 
hold divinities, and was one of the symbols which arose in con- 

»n l"i - I — V .'. i. " ■ I*- - !•[ o ' ■ .1. 1 o I {. ... K .11, M ID Mi] l«i. 



CRAFT SYMBOLS AND RELIGIOUS EMBLEMS. 91 

ncction with the system of idolatry. There are idols in the 
collection gathered from Pantalcon, Guatemala, some of which 
have little jaunty caps upon the heads; others have these same 
caps placed at the side. These may have been the straw hats 
which were woven by the natives, though they resemble trowels 
enough to start the inquiry.* 

Whatever may be said about these caps, there is no doubt but 
that the domestic vessels which were made out of pottery, such 
as bottles, jugs, vases, were sometimes used as religious symbols. 
It was very natural for the women to mold these into the shape 
of gourds, animal figures, fishes, frogs, and human images, and 
decorate them fancifully, but the decorations on pottery soon 
became symbolic, and so we have images with their faces turned 
toward the sky, holding vases full of incense, f That which was 
suggestive of the craft of pottery-making becomes a symbol of 
sun worship, and not only this, but in some cases, as, for instance, 
in the pottery of the Cliff-dwellers and the so-called civilized 
races, the symbols on the pottery ar* even suggestive of spiritual 
thoughts; the idea of the soul and spirit being conveyed by 
various figures, which were suggestive of the generative organs, 
the attributes of the divinity being conveyed by circles, disks, 
and other symbols. 

Let us turn now to the symbolic use of the knife. This knife 
is in common use among the Eskimos to-day, and is also used 
by the hunter Indians. The transmission of this knife into a 
symbol took place far to the south, in Mexico, where it became 
a national emblem. Here copper knives were used as coins and 
were also used as symbols of divinity, as well {is a clan symbol. 
The copper knife with the blade turned upward was, in fact, the 
national symbol of the Aztecs. The T shaped pieces of copper 
arc mentioned by early writers as native coins, and articles of 
tribute. There are bronzed knives in the same shaoe from Peru, 
in the Peabody Museum. It is uncertain as to what use was 
made of these knives. Some call them hoes, others agricultural 
implements, others scrapers.J Dr. Valentini has shown that 
these were placed on the head of the idols as a symbol of the 
nature powers. 

We conjecture that these knives, which in their common use 
are still retained by the rude fishermen of the north, were used 
by the Mexicans when they were in a rude state; that as they 
advanced in intelligence, in wealth and culture, religion seized 
upon this very common utensil and made it a symbol. If the 

•Sre art;. )r »n Ktrin'igraprnc Religions. F.g 0. p. lao. 

+Tht» i« illustrated by many articled of the north- west eoa*t, pottery wan Dot 
Idovd her* but there are many wooden dishes which are oanred with legendary 
camrlngs • epresentlnt; »eaK beaver*. *ea gu U, sparrow hawks, crows, and hnman 
Meet all of them sugges'lveof their divinities. 

JScr : opper krmes. Pr«»fe*sor Putnam. Proceedings ol Antiquarian Society. Vol. II, 
page JK. fifteenth rcir-rt Peabo*lv Museum, page 14.1; Dr. \ alcntioi. to Pr>Kce<J:ng* ol 
Aattquar tan So-, et v . 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



coins which were in common use were changed into symbols it 
will not be the only case where coins have retained the craft 
symbol and made them significant of value, for the very word 
pecuniary is taken from "pecos," the flock of sheep which was 
bought in exchange for the coin. 

There is a figure in the Fcjevary Codex which represents a 
king or priest in the act of sacrifice, having a knife in one hand 
and a head in the other. This should be compared with the 
-dol which is seen placed upon a pedestal. See Kins. 3 and 9. 
This idol has in its hands a knife, probably 
of copper. It has on its head the round 
cap, but in the ears are large rings in the 
shape of disks, which so resemble those that 
arc found in the mounds that we are con- 
strained to say that they were also symbols. 
There arc also idols in I'antaleon, Gaute- 
ma!a, which have similar ear-rings, though 
the ears in this case seem to be drawn down 
unnaturally so as to become almost a de- 
formity. The car-rings, however, are the 
same shape as the spool ornaments. There 
are also ear-rings in the head which is sur- 
rounded by the knifc-bladcd feathers resem- 
bling these, also in the idol which represents 
Ouctzatlcoatl, now in the Trocadero mu- 
seum at Paris.' This idol has the same 
conical shajied hat upon its head, but the 
knifc-bladcd feathers give place to a head- 
dress which is elaborate and more symbolic. 
I Here was undoubtedly the same person 
' represented in both idols. It is- noticeable, 
however, that this idol in the Trocadero 
**■*-*"*— «■»■ museum has exactly the same attitude that 
Buddha is always represented as assuming, showing that there 
must have been contact between Asia and America. 

The pipe is another article which was in common use, but 
which, by a gradual transformation, changed to ,1 clan symbol 
and became significant of many religious thoughts and senti- 
ments. The symbolic use of the pipe has not been sufficiently 
dwelt upon. 

A ha'.it that was jtcrhaps as common in prehistoric times as 
in the present, was often seized upon by religion and made to 
signify more sacred things. In fact, the smoking of the pioe 01 
peace was the chief feature in the treaties or leagues which were 





MEDICINE BAGS. ARROWS AND SPEARS. 



f RAKr SYMBOL* AND RKLUJI >\'< KMBLKtK •:< 

formed between tnc tribes. It was also an important cenmony 
in all the national councils. As a result, the pipe was always 
carried in the hand of the chiet's and medicine men in their sacred 
dances and in their w.ir feasts. Among the Dacotahs the pipe 
wa> used as a tribal symbol, and keepers of the sacred pipes 
were appointed by the tribe and had separate tents for their 
occupancy.* Pipes in the shape of tubes were sac ret 1 symbols. 
Sttine tubes, bearing a general resemblance have been described 
by SchimUratt, Squier and Davis, Haywood, C l\ Jones. They 
have lieen called stone trumpets, "telescopic devices. '" cupping 
implements used tor sucking out the disease. They were, how- 
ever, tilled with tobacco ami the smoke was blown through them 
by the medicine men. Now these stone tubes, whatever their 
use. were also used by the priests in Mexico as symbols of the ir 
office. There are many such tubes represented on the sculp- 
tured figures in Mexico and Central America. In these figures 
the priest is represented as blowing through the tubes. The 
$muke, however, in this case becomes a symbol of the wind, the 
life and the soul, ami so the tube is \cry significant. 

There were different kinds of pipes, some ot which were sym- 
bolic, but the majority were merely personal possessions. Those 
in New York are generally made of pottery, have a long stem 
with a small bowl at the end of the stem. Those in Ohio are 
made of stone and generally have the curved base, with the bowl 
in the center of the base, the bowl being nlten made in the shape 
■ •I an animal. The same kind of pipe has been found at Daven- 
j>ort. Iowa, and in various parts ot Illinois. The pipes found in 
'Tennessee among the stone graves are generally made with a 
straight tube with a duck or some other animal. Another pipe 
i* in the shape of a tube with a tl.it disk on the top. The tube is 
sometimes round ami sometimes with square angles. Gen. Gates 
P Thurston lias described several pipes from Tennessee and 
Alabama One ot these is in the shapv of a bird with wings 

•Tl.<tl lh»- |»H» • Hi ui-ll :i« tin ti.itfli* ;i\i- w.t-> i-iirr ■•■■! uit<i the *h<t»»<I il-ino * ina> 
r»* ..«>i| (nun r«lkin « pamfiitt: •»! U-> it ill 1 >.»!»«■»■ m 1 " n rl:« *«> l».ino>. 1 l«-n* 1 1 i>- • lMti<- 
er» .ir** <>>\efe>l with lu^ok^ :n t he *Ii.i|h • »! tiH'Ta!" !»• uN »hf tail uf I h>- Imfl.t •■ 
r^Jki.c'nc tliiw ii l hi- ttiti k iiinl Hm n._- nil the x;r> miiil. I hi* il.ui>-> r* ;t«.»uiiif I In- var . 
-..« *\' "ui|»« •■! fli«- l»uf!.ii" 1'iif it* vi-rt hfl* 1 -'* r.if-'y fh'-n |K \»f- ittiii l»:itt !•- n\f»« .iipt 
«j(hT w«-*iifM>ii<k in llnl' h.ihd*. 1 iii< -:ni»-ij |i 1 1 .«■ nr raliiiu* t wh- rtalervfil fmm f ft*--**- 
• .'ill •..■%»•* |||m>h. •*•••• On- |i:i'inr> a >*l • itva» II*- t ■ Mi« io> • I ;i-1 im- m.m ->f th»- Mamlm.- 
1 1|**««- •Hi-rt- 1| |h|i-» tn-hi(] jt-il in I in- "I ii Kit »:iii*« en- " I hen* w a*. i% bulla!-* '•ten.! 
w!»l h Wrt« f-j iiviil«*nt !■• a -in r- ■! pii"-. 1 h» h.»r pi-iip •,» r.iin»-,l th»- -nrrt-il tittc ••! 
o.*< * l»*»r • »*tn: tlii* !• ,t--k n:*"l jm« ■!•!•■. tii- «.ai'-»*il imj uf innl* Hki:i«; »■» :in--«- r*-- 
nr:T**<l n<t | •:!-«- I In* »?'k ■,■•■■■■■.■- ■• •■■nn t-'l 1 1 ■ •• >»-|i-r,.i| unr t»Mil .ifnl . .41 r v.\ t hf •»»•,■•• il 

W*r p |r- # f|.-\ .■'«•! i'«rr,i-.l !||t> • «.-ri'i| 'M.'llh U'll I'll W.i- th' 1 ■•lulll •»!!• :1 Wli'.i 11 U,|. 

tn<* f .• »'*i i if t'f *(■•■ i|> f, -.« f i • 1 .i-'i T 1 1 « - ti ii» whii Ii wa*- M !•-! 1 tilth i>ili:n •-•■. | h» 
""'i'B'-k nh'isr-ifr ' kpiix i*.irri< (I ti'.>- I'll ■iiih-i nr i»-a- , » pin', i'l < h:iiii{.i kimi* ■ • ■"• • «1 
lb* •A'**ril |him> Mini li.nl t\\.i -ii ft <1 !t>tit». ii||i* n| u liirh • iilititlMtil 1 |,«* |mi: ( * a .f ,»|, 
*M«-«Mt iii.il the iilh«-r (i)ii':ii!n''1 1 1 ■ - «k'i» • >t » m hi: •- hufT im • n\% . I'li'-ie »*•- I «■• ■ ,ilw 
f»*»l *»r pi-Mi-# |il|<t-*>. mi ■•!)•• th** •- i\Z •■ *■ ath» rs .ir. whr«\ .hi<1 lh»- i>1|m- »lfiii hi>ii' m, 
t*i» ••tn» f I t\f t'Afli- ff it »it»r<i a***- «»i«»ii ifil li:.ii-H ana \iii.:<-. rin» ti'ii?-* t-< «ii * n : u ; m l: ■!.• 
pup anil llu* | vr«i i-iiii'atnini; tin- »•!■ « >\ iii|m--* mi- .iiw iy» |>:i<-««1 liv th J: -.••,«..■• > ( . 
Ii.* '-»-Dlrr «»| the rn«an)|iiui'H'. 1 h<- '-lit* i»f i N>-h >«:•*• in a « -in-li- ait>iiint Hm <n 
CAfnjtfririit, ihm uf the •• k «• n->.:i mif » i|i ••( flu ■■ti» r.u:.i- :»t.,l \\. ,t u* t*., • ]• k.» 
Hkfie on the other mi|> ni t hi> •mi 1 »;ini-f. W h> ii »l>«- flr-i r m • i • if»- r i- tit a >1 •- *h- 
•|fffl*j( (be bear |M*npli a -an v Mm- -■!'■'•• «1 Ii h; -«i ' In- i -U •;••*> -, ' lit* >.!•-• •■■! i > : 1 1> - .- * > k- i. 

o»*3f Afirl ■in'ilred !«• the »ia.v iiifl Ihi th.i>>h" ginl u-hlr "-eil. "• M ** ' li> .iT.if -%• 

bij|»." I'mic IV, p. IJ'i. • hap'.r \ 



!M THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

spread. Sec Fig. 10. Another is inthc a shape of panther with 
mouth open, the sides decorated with peculiar loops. Another 
is in the shape of a human image kneeling. This image has a 
peculiar cap on the head and ear-rings at the side of the head, 
and the sun symbol on the top of the head, carved above the 
tube, making the bowl lor the pipe. The pipes of the Gulf States 
were different from those of Tennessee, Ohio, or New York, 
or Iowa. They were generally made to be used with a reed 
stem and were block shaped, the bowl on the top of the block 
and the mouthpiece at the side. The best pipes were made into 
human images, some of them in the attitude of adoring the sun. 
A modified form of this pipe is the one which has a flaring 
mouthpiece as well as a flaring bowl. This kind of pipe was 
(|uitc widely distributed, as it was found in the sepulchral cham- 
bers in Tennessee, aiming the pottery makers of Missouri, as 
well as among the pyramid-builders of the Gulf States. Nadail- 




lac has represented an earthenware pipe from Missouri with .1 
portrait on the bowl. Mr. C. C. Jones has described pipes from 
Georgia, but without the portraits. 

We have in the pipes a series which illustrates first, the grade 
of progress, second, the religious cult, whether of animal wor- 
ship or sun worship, third, the clan symbol: fourth, the human 
portrait. 

The ax is another article which was used for common pur- 
poses and became symbol it. There are axes in various jiarts of 
the world which have symbolic figures upon the Made, the fig- 
ures themselves showing where they are found; those on the 
northwest coast having symbols peculiar to that region; those 
from the Cliff dwellrrs. those from the Mound-builders and those 
from the Aztecs having symbols on them characteristic of the 
different nationalities We present a series of axes which arc 
from Assyria See Tig II. The ax in modern times is generally 
a sign ol woodcraft, but in ancient times was a symbol of author- 
ity. Among the aborigines of America it was a symbol of any 
or all the cl.lssis, hunters, warriors, agriculturists, mountaineers 
and priestly sjcniicers. The symbolic use of the a\ in modern 
times is well known and having become familiar from sight we 
need not dwell upon it, as it appears in many of the secret soci- 
eties and labor organization- 



CRAFT SYMBOLS AND RELIGIOUS EMBLEMS. 



95 



It is noticeable that the ax, or rather the common celt, is car- 
ried in the hands of the priest at the time of sacrifice, both in 
Egypt, Assyria and in America; and from these sacrificial scenes 
we learn that it had everywhere about the same shape. It is not 
a knife, but a wedge-shaped ax or celt, held in the hand without 
a groove. There is a bas-relief seen by M. Habel in Santa 
Lucia which is supposed to represent a human sacrifice. On 
this bas relief there is a human figure with a crab upon its head, 
serpents twined about its body, the hair and head-dress falling 
nearly to its feet. In one hand there is a human head, in the 
other the sacrificial ax. Below this figure arc two others, each 
of them carrying a human head. One of these represents death, 
for there is a skull on the body; the other seems to have a 
crowned head. 

There is a double-bladcd ax which is a common symbol in 
America. The origin of this symbol is unknown. One form of 
it is that which we call the mace or butterfly ornament. Fig. 12. 
It is made of striped slate and has a hole perforated through the 
center. It was probably worn by warriors as a badge of office. 
It is supposed by some to be a sun-symbol, for badges in the 




Flff. U. Symbotic An*. 

shape of single and double axes arc lound on the heads of the 
winged figurcs # taken from the mounds. These have been called 
Aztec symbols, but they are no more Aztec than they are 
Mound- builder, for the same shaped banner stones are found in 
the mounds.* 

•The ax as a badge of authority originated early in savagery, 
but survives modern civilization. In nearly all cases the staft 
has at its head some symbol which can be traced back to a sim- 
ple tool, either an ax, a spear, knife or lance. Even the Roman 
staffs of office were decorated with axes carried in the hands of 
lictors as emblems of their office. The double bladed ax was a 
sign of power in the hands of Jupiter, the god of the Greeks. It 
was worn on the helmet of the Aztec women, and seems to have 
been also a symbol of divinity among the Mound-builders, for 
it may be recognized on many of the winged figures and mytho- 
logic creatures depicted by them.f 



my book 00 * tfoand-balldm, thHr Works and fUiloa," P ate VI. p. 273. 
ftto* cole of oopper plate* In * Myth* and Hyrabola," Chapter XI. p. »1; alto Re- 
port of EUiBoioftaal Bureau tor l«J-4, and AoUqulUe* ol Tennuaiee, p. .%42. 



W THF AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The war-club is another implement which ultimately became 
a craft symbol, as well as a tribal emblem. There arc a great 
many patterns of war-clubs, some of them in the hands of Indians, 
others engraved on shell gorgets, still others portrayed in the 
codices, the most of them being of prehistoric origin. The war- 
club is supposed to be an American or Indian weapon, but in 
one form or another it is widely distributed, and can neither be 
confined to either savages or the scmi-civili/ed races of America, 
though in some of its forms it may be recognized as purely 
American. If we take the different kinds of war-clubs found 
among the savages and classify them we shall discover three or 
four types one with .1 round head, a sharp spike at the end ot 
the head; another with the flaring bent head, with sharp spike at 
the bend of the head: a third with a partially crescent shaped 
head without any spiki ; a fourth being in the shape of a lull en- 




dx& 



closed in a leather s.ulc and used as a shin- -hot would be. a 
fifth being the ordinary -torn- tom.diauk These various war- 
clubs have been depicted by Catlin in his paintings and may lie 
seen in the hands of the warriors engaged in their dance*. A 
sixth form ni.iy Ik- seen among the more sedentary tribes, espe- 
cially those of the Gulf States. They were more ..f the charac- 
ter of batons, and were sometimes decorated with tassels, hair 
and feathers and were symbolic in their nature. Kngravin^s of 
these war-clubs may be seen on the shell gorgets and copper 
tablets taken from the Ktowah mounds. 

War-dubs or battle axes were used in Mexico and Central 
America as symbols <>f the divinity and perhaps of the nature 
lowers, rather than as craft symbols. The war club of the Mex- 
icans differed from that of the savages of the Mississippi valley 
in ncaily all particulars. It was a club which turned up and 
hack, forming angles, but was tovered with ornaments about the 
edge. It was more ofa badge of office than it was a club. This 
kind of a badge may be seen on the ends of the crosses tn the 
palace of t'xmal. There hang from it. to either sjde of the 
cross, various tassels, fringes and other figures, all of them sig- 
nifirant. The war-club has evidently become a nature symbol, 
but was associated with the arrow, the weather vane, the thunder 



CRAFT SYMBOLS AND RELIGIOUS EMBLEMS 07 

bird and other symbols, which in the growth from savagery to 
civilization came to be used as the symbols of their religious 
cult.* 

Another article which was very common and which was also 
a craft symbol is the medicine bag. This, in a large majority of 
cases, was a personal fetich; was worn about the person as a 
peculiar charm; was so sacred to the individual that it was gen- 
erally buried with him. Still the medicine bag was too well 
known to be always private. It was accordingly carried by 
chiefs cither as a decoration to their spears, as a sign of their 
power, or suspended to their person as a part of their dress. To 
the medicine men it became a craft symbol, and was with them 
an especial emblem of the supernatural. The medicine bag was 
a personal possession, a private symbol, but it was so common 
that it could not be regarded as a religious symbol of any one 
tribe or clan, but it might be the religious symbol of the office 
of the medicine man. It was, however, the object contained in 
the medicine bag that determined the dream god of the individ- 
ual and what was the totem of the clan, as well as the special 
religious superstition of the people. 

Here we would mention the symbols seen on the shell gorgef, 
representing a sacrificial scene. See Fig. 3. This is supposed by 
Mr. Frank Gushing to represent the "God of the Winds," per- 
haps of the two winds, and is more or less like a Mexican figure. 
" As would be the case in a Zuni representation of the Dawn God 
blowing the wind of the morning dew through a flute with a 
flaring gourd-shell mouth, so this personage is shown as if blow- 
ing through a somewhat similar instrument. In the mouth 
of his mask, or 'double/ is seen another of these 'tubes,' on 
which is cut the zigzag lines of swiftness; while in hi* hand he 
carries, as a baton or perhaps a thunder mace, with the stem 
marked diagonally or twisted, to represent force or violence. If 
this were a Mexican or a Central American figure, the wind 
would be shown by a comma, flame or cloud-shaped mark issuing 
from the mouth of the individual. Again, unlike the Mexican 
and Central American figures, but typical of other delineations 
of the Mound-builders, this character wears at his hip a pouch, 
decked with bosses and plates of copper. All of his other 
accoutrements, too — copper ear-buttons, the copper crest or comb 
over his mask, etc. — are crude but characteristic representations 
of articles found buried, and similarly associated with the dead, 
in mounds from Ohio to the gulf; articles as distinctive of the 
Mound-builder Indians as the elaborate plume- dresses, obsidian- 
spiked w.ir-clubs and the throwing-sticks of Mexican figures are 

"Mc-MTlbsaBdHjrinbnla," Chapier VIII. p. 3*7.' 

ttto* article on Manual Om^pU In American Anthropologist, Vol VI, No. 4. 
t«a* "Mytha and HjrmbnU," in lYehiatortc America, Chapter IV, Plat* IX, p. 107, 
mppm part "Monkey God/* and Pig. &, p. 3*. "sacrificial seane," Cnapttr XI. 



H8 THK AMERICAN ASTIQI'ARIAS. 

of the Aztecs. On the whole, this art of the Mound-builders 
seems sufficiently self-centered to stand by itsclfas well as better 
known arts of other ethnic areas of the continent." 

This interpretation of Mr. Cushing's of the different articles 
and of their symbolic significance is very interesting and very 
suggestive, but is nevertheless oj>en to discussion. I*et us take, 
for instance, the "baton" which is in the hands of the human 
figure seen on the small gorget from Missouri, which he calls 
the thunder mace. This mace resembles nothing else which has 
yet been seen in the hands of a Mound-builder or Indian, but it 
does resemble an article which may be seen depicted upon the 
Maya codices as carried in the hands of the so-called ".Monkey 
God." The same may also be said of the mouth-piece, which 
Mr. Lushing calls a flute. There is no such instrument found, 
so far as we know, nor is there any picture of a mouth-piece 
like it in any other engraving, and until further discoveries are 
made we must regard the interpretation as largely conjectural. 
The same may also be said of the pouch, though there are more 
specimens of this article in the Mound builder engravings than 
either of the other two. for a similar pouch may be seen on the 
copper plates from the Ktowah mound and on shell gorgets from 
New Madrid, Missouri, and on the small gorget seen in the en- 
graving. These articles may indeed have been craft symbols 
which arose from the official use of certain common articles, such 
as batons, flutes or tubes or pouches, but if they were we have 
thus far no definite knowledge of the relics having been used by 
the Mound- bnilders, and so are inclined to ascribe them to the 
effect of contact with the more advanced races of Mexico or 
Central America — a conclusion which is confirmed by comparing 
them with articles which are seen pictured in the manuscripts of 
these countries The symbolic significance of these articles which 
Mr. Gushing has given m> adroitly may l>e correct, but if so 
the study of the Mexican or Maya symbolism will reveal it. The 
same may also Ik: said of that peculiar article which is seen on 
the back of the human figure, a framework which bear** the same 
relation to the shoulders as the wings do in the dancing figures 
and the so-called eagle-man. It, however, resembles a frame 
which is carried on the back of the Monkey (iod, on which 
is placed the image which is borne by that god to the sacrifice. 
There are also tassels, a head dress and sash on this figure which 
are unlike those found on any other Mound-builder's engraving, 
but much more resemble the same articles of dress seen in the 
Aztec |xnntings. 



POLYNESIAN TYPES IN CENTRAL AMERICA. ft* 



POLYNESIAN TYPES IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL 

AMERICA. 

By Profrssor Cyrus Thomas. 

I presented, in a previous article, evidences ot a broad distinc- 
tion between the types of the aboriginal arts and customs of the 
Atlantic and Pacific slopes of North America. In the same 
article I gave some reasons for believing that the types of the 
western slope (including Mexico and Central America) had in 
part been derived from Polynesia and Melanesia. In the present 
article I propose to present some additional evidence on the 
Utter point, relating especially to the origin of some of the 
peculiar features of the Mexican and Central' American civil- 
ization. 

It is well known that there was formerly in use among the 
natives of Mexico and Central America a peculiar calendar 
system found among no other tribes of the continent, and, as 
has been supposed, among no people of the Old World. 
This calendar, though limited geographically to the sections 
mentioned, was not confined to anv one or two stocks. We are 
informed by Dr. Brinton, who has studied the subject somewhat 
carefully from the linguistic and historical standpoint, that "it 
was in use among the Nahuas, ot the valley of Mexico, and 
other tribes of the same linguistic family resident in Tlascallan 
and Meztitlan, in Soconusco, Guatemala and Nicaragua; it 

Prevailed among the Mixt ecs and Zapotecs, and of the numerous 
lava tribes, it was familiar to the Mayas proper, of Yucatan; 
the Tzentals and Zotzils, of Chiapas; the Quiches and Cakchi- 
quels, of Guatemala, and to their ancestors, the builders of 
the ruined cities ot Copan and Palenque. * * * It was in 
vogue among the Totonecas. The Pirindas, Matlazinacs and 
Tarascos had also accepted it. The Chapanecs or Mangues, 
part of whom lived in Nicaragua and part in Chiapas, had also 
adopted it. The tribes above named belong to seven entirely 
different linguistic stocks, but are not geographically distant. 
Outside of the area which they occupied, no traces of this calen- 
dar system, with its many and salient peculiarities, have been 
found, either in the New or Old World."* 

This is a remarkable fact, which, though perhaps not unpre- 
cedented in the culture development ot particular areas, is, to say 
the least, unusual. How are we to account for it? The facts 
given by Dr. Brinton show clearly that it was not ethnic in its 
development or distribution, as it had spread over a particular 



100 TIIK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

area, without regard to ethnic lines. These facts point very 
significantly toward a foreign influence, and are most easily 
accounted for on the theory that its peculiar features were, at 
least in part, received from some outside source. The reason 
lor rejecting this theory has been that it was supposed these 
features were not to he found elsewhere. However, if the 
theory advanced in my previous article of Polynesian influence 
on the west coast be well founded, and it can be further shown 
that some of the prominent features of this calendar were in use 
among the Polynesians, our theory is not only greatly strengthened 
but the puzzling problem of the origin of this calendar is solved. 

We may remark further that the distribution of this calendar 
renders it quite certain that it was not brought into use until 
after the entry of the tribes among which it is found, into the 
region over which it spread, and after the diflerentiation of the 
linguistic stocks into their several dialects. This is proven bv 
the fact that no indications of it have been found among the ! luas- 
tecas, the northern branch of the Maya stock, or the Shoshone, 
or other northern tribes of the Uto-Aztecan family. 

The marked features of this calendar, though not all peculiar 
to it (if our comparison extends to the Old World), areas fol- 
lows : The year of 3O5 days was completed by intercalating 
rive days at the end of the last month ; there were eighteen 
months of twenty days each ; each day was designated bv a 
particular name, and beside* its name each was numbered, not 
from I to 20, but from 1 to 13, when the numl>er Ix'gan again 
with the unit ; there was also a sacred \ear or period consist- 
ing of 2(*> days, though the particular months this embraced 
are not known ; e.ich nv nth was tor certain purposes divided 
into tour short period* ot tivc days each; there was also a 
method of counting the nights by nines, though <*o far as known 
this was applied only to the ritual or sacred period ot :(\x\a\>. 

Bv referring to the ** IliMorv of the Sandwt* h Islands" by 
Rev. Sheldon Dibble ■ Kdn # 1*4 j. pp. -4--S anil !<►** and "The 
Polynesian Race" by Judge Abraham Kf inlander. Vol. 1, p. 
I U\ el. seq 1 we find in the Hawaiian Calendar, wish one ex- 
ception (the division into month** of twenty i\.i\* , all oi the fea- 
tures mentioned. And besides these we find an explanation ot 
some ot the characteristic** ot the Central American Calendar 
which are considered 'he most difficult to account f«»r. 

The first named author says •'their division ot tirre was very 
ancle!)'.. * * * In one year there were nine times torty 
nights • • • Twelve months united constituted one \ear. 
* ■ There were thirty nights in each month, seventeen ol 

whiih were not \erv light and thirteen were." Again, he says 
that **tho«*c who took mo*t care in measuring time, measured it 
bv means both ot the moon and fixed stars. They divided the 
ve.ir into twelve months and each month into thirty day*. Thev 
had a distinct name for each of the days ot the month." Judge 



POLYNESIAN TYPES IN CENTRAL AMERICA. 101 

Fornander remarks that "it is known that the Hawaiians who 
counted twelve months of thirtv days each, intercalated five 
days at the end of the month Weleku^ about the 20th Decem- 
ber, which were tabu-days, dedicated to the festival of the God 
Lono; after which the New Year began with the first day of 
the month Makalii" He states further that "the public sacri- 
fices and Kapu-days* were only observed during eight months 
of the year, and discontinued during the months /ttiaw, Welthu, 
Makalii and Kaola % when in the month Kautua they recom- 
menced/' He then gives a list of the names of the months and 
of the thirty days of the month. 

From these extracts we see that the Hawaiian calendar cor- 
responded with the Central American calendar in every par- 
ticular, with the single exception above mentioned. The year 
consisted of 365 days, made up of the year proper of 360 days 
and five intercalated days. These five days were added at the 
close ol the last month and were called "Kapu-days/' It is true 
they are usually spoken of when referring to the American 
calendar as "nameless days," nevertheless they were named and 
numbered and were devoted to special religious observances. 
It is also a remarkable coincidence, unless the theory I am ad- 
vancing be correct, that the same term as that used by the 
Hawaiians was applied by the Tzentals to these days. Re- 
ferring again to Dr. Brinton's work on the Native American 
calendar, we quote the following: "Father Varea, writing of 
this same nation, says that they observed a period of seven days 
annually in Lent, during which they believed all animals, etc., 
retired into secluston. To this period they gave the name 
K*apik % ih % closed days or days apart, the same term which they 
applied to the intercalary days" The Hawaiian Kapu % and its 
equivalents tapu and tabu in other Polynesian languages, signify 
"set apart, prohibited, made sacred " 

Continuing our comparison, we notice that the following ad- 
ditional features belong to both systems. 

Both systems appear to have included a method of counting 
by "thirteens," though we have no evidence that the days of 
the Hawaiian calendar were numbered by this method. Never- 
theless Mr. Dibble's statement that "the nights were counted 
by the moon. There were thirty nights in each month, 
$e:enteen of which were not very light, and thirteen were" can 
not be considered as having any application to the subject unless 
it refers to a method of dividing the month. The use of this 
series of thirteens in the Mexican and Central American calen- 
dar presents a difficulty which Mr. Brinton tails to overcome 
with satisfaction to hi«nself. He considers the usual suggestion 
that thirteen represents one-halt the number of days when the 
moon is visible, between its heliacal conjunctions and owed its 

The* trr:n "'k^j". iav« i* lh«- )l«wa.ian r^ui\»lt-nt !■• "lain: «U\* thi-rr bc.ng n«> "t * 
,fi thru alpha!**! 



102 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

selection to this observation, as not entirely satisfactory. He 
says "an obvious difficulty in this theory is, that according to it 
the calendar ought not to take note of the days when the moon 
is in conjunction as otherwise after the very first month it will 
no longer correspond with the sequence ot natural events trom 
which it is assumed to be derived; but as these days are counted, 
it would appear, although the lunar relations of the calendar in 
later days cannot be denied, that it had some other origin." 

I think there can be no reasonable doubt that the original 
method of counting time was by the revolution and phases of 
the moon, the count being by nights rather than by days. This 
is admitted by Dr. Brinton, who remarks that the twenty-day 
periods **have been very generally called by terms connected 
with the word tor moon, which indicates that at some time they 
superseded a more ancient system of reckoning the solar year 
by a series of lunations.* 9 Moreover, the supposition mentioned 
above, as to the origin of the use of thirteen, implies this. It 
tneretore appears to be conceded on all hands that there was an 
older method of dividing the year by lunations which give the 
month twenty-nine or thirty days. The change to a month of 
twenty days presents precisely the same difficulty on any other 
theory as that I advance. I believe it to have been arbitrarily 
made. 

The statement by Mr. Dibble, who we must suppose had not 
made a special study of the Hawaiian calendar, would seem to 
meet exactly the difficulty suggested by Dr. Brinton; as it ap- 
pears trom it that the original division was into periods ol 
seventeen and thirteen days <or rather nights). A survival of 
this method appears to be found in the evidence Dr. Brinton 
gives us of the use ol seven and thirteen (making twenty) in re- 
lation to one another; and I might add, the trequent use of 
seventeen as a counter in the codices. 

Another point in which the calendars ol the two sections 
agree is that in each was a sacred period, consisting in the na- 
tive American calendar of 260 days; and in the Hawaiian ot 
eight months or 240 days. I do not find any mention of a "five- 
day" period in any Polynesian calendar, but according to Craw- 
furd, the old Java week consisted of five days*. ^tu\ their month 
was divided into period* of five days each. 

We thus see that with the single exception of the division of 
the year in the n Hive American calendar into months of twenty 
days, the two systems agree in every essential feature; while 
on the other hand but tew, if any, ol its features are found in 
any other aboriginal American time-system. The tact that 
some of these features are lound in some Asiatic calendars tur- 
nishes no argument against the theorv here advanced, but on 
the other hand serves as evidence in favor of it, as it is now 
generally admitted that the Polynesians can be traced to south- 
eastern Asia, being apparently of Malayan descent. 



POLYNESIAN TYPES IN CENTRAL AMERICA. 103 

Although the foregoing comparison furnishes strong evidence 
in support of the theory that the Mexican and Central American 
calendar can be traced to Polynesia, it does not exhaust this 
evidence. If we turn to Rev. Richard Taylor's 'lc-lka-a-Mani? 
we shall find that the objects selected as symbols of some of the 
days of the New Zealand (Maori) calendar are precisely the 
same as some of those named in the native American calendar. 

It appears that in some of the groups, as, for example, New 
Zealand, Java, etc. — and as Dr. Seler holds, also in Mexico, 
certain deities, or, as Crawfurd terms them, "Regents," presided 
over the days, one deity over each day; and were the authors 
or creators of those things by which the days were symbolized. 
In the list given by Mr. Taylor for the thirty days of the month, 
we find the following names: The Shark (or some sea or land 
monster), Wind, Rain (or Dew), The Dog, Lizard, Stone, Storm 
and Tempest, Bird (in a general sense), and Lakes and Rivers. 
If we assume Storm and Tempest as equivalent to Movement 
or Earthquake, and Lakes and Rivers as equivalent to Water, 
which is certainly legitimate, we find all these names in the 
Mexican calendar. That is to say, nine out of the twenty sym- 
bols (or things symbolic) of the Mexican days are found in the 
list of symbols of the days of the New Zealand month. These 
agreements are certainly remarkable, and I might say almost, if 
not quite unparalleled, if there was no former intercourse 
between the inhabitants of the western coast of America and the 
Polynesians. Especially is this true when we take into considera- 
tion the differences in the physical conditions and fauna of the 
two sections. 

Even this does not exhaust the evidence which can be adduced 
indicating that the native calendar of Central America and 
Mexico was derived, in part, from Polynesia. The theory 
seems, from the comparatively limited examination I have made, 
to bear successfully the crucial test which linguists require. It 
is true we should expect to find scattered through the languages 
of the area over which this native calendar has spread at least a 
few loan words and borrowed names. Some indications in this 
direction ought to appear in the calendar names of some of the 
tribes using it. The forms will, as a matter of course, be more 
or less modified by the idiom of the languages adopting them, 
but the original conception should be substantially retained. On 
the other hand, as the Polynesian dialects belong to one linguis- 
tic family and are closel) allied, it will be legitimate to search 
for such words in any and all of them, allowance being made 
lor the letter interchange, as / and r; t and k: f and b % etc. 

Adopting this supposition, I have made a comparison of the 
limited data I have at hand, and find it confirms to a much 
greater extent than 1 anticipated, the theory advanced, and 
shows that the field is one well worthy the attention of linguists. 



104 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

In order to show the method of this comparison and the nature 
of the results obtained, I note here some of the resemblances 
observed. It will be necessary, however, for the reader who 
wishes to understand thoroughly the bearing of these compari- 
sons, to refer to Dr. Brinton *s "Analysis of the Day-Names," in 
his recent work, entitled "The Native Calendar of Central 
America and Mexico." In numbering the days of the month I 
toUow the order adopted by Drs. Seler and Brinton. 

The First Day. This is given in the Maya calendar as imix; 
the Tzental as imox or mox % and the Quiche as imox or moxin. 
As these languages are closely allied dialects ol the Maya stock, 
it is evident that the names have substantially the same signifi- 
cation, but this is a mystery not yet thoroughly explained. 
What is this meaning? As the Mexican name certainly denotes 
some kind ol fish or reptile, and the name in the Zapotec calen- 
dar probably refers to a lizard, Dr. Brinton is inclined to the 
opinion that the names of the Maya dialect refer also to some 
fish-like animal or some reptile. As the root of the word in 
each dialect is w-.v, he refers to the Maya word mcx or metx % 
"the spider-fish.'* As x is equivalent to sA, he might have 
referred to meek or ixmeck % "a newt" or "water-lizard." 

Turning to the Polynesian languages, we find that in Hawaiian 
moo {ttioko or mocha) is "the general name for all kinds of liz- 
ards," and that in Tonga, mora is "a species of lizard." These 
connect quite closely with the Tzental name, mox % and at the 
same time furnish a satisfactory explanation ot the term. 

The Second Daw The Mava, Tzrntal, Quiche, and Mexican 
names of thin day all Mgnify "wind." The signification, how- 
ever, of the Ztpotec names t>tti or nit or lua is uncertain. 

Dr. Seler derives gui from t/uii % "fire, flame;" Dr. Brinton 
says, as we find in that tongue ttit\ "air, wind," and chiie f 
"breath," we may bring these into harmony with jfttt; and adds 
thai guiicbee nignifies "wind-and-water cloud." He connects 
nii with nict % "to grow, increase, gain life/' It in apparent, 
therefore, that they are somewhat in doubt in regard to the true 
signification of the name. 

An appeal to the Polynesian dialects will, I think, enable us 
to solve the mystery. Compare with the Zipotec, gnt f the 
Tonga btthi % "to blow anything out of the mouth with force"; 
New Zeaiand pnh % "to blow"; and Hawaiian fmht\ "to blow, as 
the wind, to putV, to breathe hard." Coming back to the Maya 
we find the word ppuh % "to blow, fan, disturb." The elongate 
lorm giving the mouth of the symbol of the Mexican day 
\ehccittl\ in the Mexican codices, and of the female figures on 
plates twentv-six and twentv-eight of the Troano Codex, (which 
are emblematic of the storm) suggest very plainly the idea of 
"blowing trom the mouth," which is evidently the primary sig- 
nification of the Polynesian terms. Here we see the extended 
lips giving the form of ;• bird's bill. Now it is very significant 



POLYNESIAN TYPES IN CENTRAL AMERICA. :«5 

in this connection that nit or ni in Maya and several cognate 
dialects signifies "nose, beak or point." 

Thus we may go through with the several day names of the 
calendar, except such as "deer," "monkey/' "tiger," and other 
animals unknown to the Polynesian islands, and find corres- 
ponding words in the Polynesian dialects, which throw light on 
the signification of the names in the native Mexican and Cen- 
tral American calendar. What has been given will suffice to 
show the character of this evidence; space will not permit us to 
go through the list. 

There are also indications of borrowed words, besides day 
names, found scattered through the Maya dialects. Thus in 
May* tok, 4 *a flint," in New Zealand toka, "a rock," Maya Mok, 
"to bleed repeatedly"; N. Zeal. Mo, "blood," Maya /skits, "east, 
or sun-rise"; Hawaiian Ilskstsa, "east or j>un-rise." Maya chu % 
"calabash"; N. Zeal, hue, "calabash." Maya puhuiox ftshuy, 
"a night bird;" Hawaiian fueo* "an owl." Maya and cognate 
dialects, pepem, pefets, "butterfly," N. Zeal, and Tonga, pepe, 
"butterfly/ etc. As quite a number, perhaps dozens, of such 
corresponding words are to be found, some, at least, must be 
considered, loan words from one section to the other. 

The only probable assumptions we can make in regard to the 
introduction of this foreign influence or element are the follow- 
ing : 

First, That it was by the landing of foreigners from some of 
the Polynesian islands on the western coast, among whom were 
priests or persons familiar with the Polynesian calendar. As this 
element would soon be lost by absorption, it would have little or 
no effect on the ph\sical characteristics of the American race. 

Second, As this calendar system is found only in Central 
America and the southern half of Mexico, the foreign element 
which introduced it must have reached the coast within this 
limit, otherwise we should find it further north or south. This 
however applies only to the particular foreign element which in- 
troduced the calendar, and does not touch the question of con- 
tact lurther north or south. 

Third, This introduction must have taken place after the 
several tribes had reached substantially the areas they were 
found occuping at the time of the Spanish conquest. This con- 
clusion is based, first, upon the tact that the area over which the 
calendar extends is limited to the region mentioned; and second, 
that it is not ethnical, as it has been adopted by tribes belong- 
ing to seven di fit* rent linguistic stocks, and that on the other 
hand the more northern branches of some of these have never 
used it. 

I shall not attempt at present to follow up any of the other im- 
portant questions which are raised by the theory herein ad- 
vanced. 



10t> THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



ARCILEOLOGY OF THE SAGINAW VALLEY. 



Til!. KXIIIHIT AT THK WORLDS FAIR. 



By Harlan I. Smith. 

Along the shore of Saginaw Bay, and throughout all the 
territory draining into it, are found the remains of a primitive 
people. The quarry where these people obtained the pipe stone 
for their pipes has been discovered. It is very probable that 
there are old quarries where chert nodules ot the subcarbonifer- 
ous series were also obtained, as this rock, which is the most 
frequent material ot the chipped implements, outcrops in many 
places, not only along the bay shore, but also near the head- 
waters ot the river. Workshops, village and camp sites, burial 
grounds, burial mounds, enclosures and embankments have 
been located, and near all ol these have been found pieces ot 
chert nodules in various stages ot formation, Irom the fractured 
nodule of raw material to the delicately finished implement. 
There have been found also in this limited territorv nine caches, 
or deposits, ot which records have been preserved. How many 
may nave been accidentally disturbed or unearthed and never 
reported is not easy to estimate. But it is very probable that 
many more of these interesting deposits ot the treasures of the 
primitive people will be found as the valley is more completely 
examined. A map locating each ot the so caches, and eight ot 
the deposits, was represented in the exhibit. The blades of 
seven of the caches were of a material closely resembling the 
nodular chert rock previously mentioned. Altogether, eight 
caches containing blades ot this material have been found. 
Representatives from all were exhibited save one, discovered by 
Mr. Gleason, that being deposited in the Pea body Museum, and 
was the first complete cache, with a full label, to be received by 
that museum. Some of the de|>osits contained simple, rudely 
shaped blades and "turtle kicks" but others contained finely 
finished implements. One of these caches exhibited consisted 
ot nodules of unworked chert "turtle fwck" shaped blades, with 
chipping on but one side, blades having one side beveled, and 
"turtle thick" shaped blades having both sides chipped. So in 
this cache we find specimens of tour forms, the direct result ol 
the manufacture ol chipped implements in a cache. In one of 
the caches two celts were found, and in another a number of 
ribbed stones were placed around a large finely chipped knife. 
The caches have all been found near navigable water, which 



ARCHEOLOGY OF THE SAGINAW VALLEY. 107 

was in direct communication with all the greater outcrops of the 
chert-bearing rock. 

Although scarcely any archaeological work has been attempted 
in the lower peninsula of Michigan, a small exhibit was made 
at the World s Columbian Exposition of materials and plans 
illustrating, in a measure, the archaeology of a portion of the 
Saginaw Valley. The exhibit occupied seventv-five square feet 
of space, adjacant to that of Ontario, and consisted ot a part of 
the results of the works of Mr. Edward S. Golson and myself in 
the territory indicated. 

Maps were exhibited, locating as far as possible the principal 
village sites, workshops, graves, burial places, mounds, etc., and 
showing the hydrographic basin of Saginaw Bay. The speci- 
mens were arranged in reference to these maps. All materials 
from one village site were placed together, so that the visitor 
could readily see what had been found at any single locality, 
and would know just what one might expect to find on a village 
site. 

A large village site on the eastern banks of the Saginaw 
river, now in the city ot Saginaw, was represented by the usual 
village material. Perhaps deserving mention was duck -shaped 
stone, which had been pecked into shape, and upon which the 
polishing had not been carried over the entire surface, only the 
sides of the head having the appearance of any grinding. There 
were no perforations specimens, as is usual with such forms. 

From a village site and cemetery farther up the river were 
exhibited several pipes and stone beads, besides the usual ma- 
terial common to such places. Farther beyond, at the junction 
of the Shiawassee and Tittabawassee rivers there was a very 
large village. This place was inhabited even down into his- 
toric times, and then by the Chippewas, early French settlers 
and house-boat fishermen in the order mentioned. Traditions 
of the Chippewas state that in early times another people had a 
great village here, and the neighboring tribes united in a war of 
extermination and destroyed the village, burying the unfor- 
tunate inhabitants in two large conical mounds. It is interest- 
ing to note that such mounds exist on the western siie of the 
village site. These we may or may not please to connect with 
the tradition. A photograph of one of these mounds was ex- 
hibited, as well as one of the water front of the village. This 
locality is rich in stone and pottery remains, and more bone im- 
plements have been found upon the surface here than at any 
other place in the valley. From the surface of this place is ex- 
hibited, among the other remains, a celt in process of manufac- 
ture. It is simply a water-worn pebble which has been partly 
rubbed to the edge, but the process had been suspended before 
the implement was completed, and instead ot a sharp edge we 
have the water-worn surface continuous with the part which had 
not been ground. The specimen is not dulled by use, as with- 



108 THE AMKKK'AN ANTIQUARIAN. 

out careful examination might seem to be the case. Mr. Golson 
exhibited from this place a copper awl about two inches in 
length. It was also at this point that Mr. Golson discovered 
two ot the caches while co-operating with the author in prelim- 
inary examination of the village. 

On the bank of the Tittabawassee river, several miles above 
its junction with the Saginaw, several caches were found, in 
which were some beautifully chipped chert knives over seven 
inches in length. Here, too, was a large village site, work-shop 
and a burial mound. From this locality were exhibited, as of 
especial note, a number of copper beads, a copper ring and a 
piece ot perforated copper. The string from the beads had 
been partly preserved by the copper salts, A copper celt was 
also exhibited from this place bv Mr. Golson. Hammer stones, 
chert drills were numerous at the workshop where these copper 
objects were found. Several village sites in this region were 
represented, but mention of them can not be made at this time. 

A pottery urn, nestored) found inverted over the head of a 
skeleton at a village site and burial place on the bluff at the 
bend of the Cass river, six miles above Saginaw, is unusually 
well preserved for so large a pot, and one from a locality where 
nature does not smile upon archaeological specimens as she does 
in Peru and Colorado, but rather sends frost and moisture 
among the other elements to do them damage. This urn, now 
one foot and eight inches in length and three feet in circumfer- 
ence, must oriuinally have been over two feet in height. 

The several village sites, work-shops, etc., near Bay Port and 
on North and Heisterman Islands, contributed an unuvual pro- 
portion of rude and interesting material. A calavarium (250* 
having a cephalic index of 83.14, and an ostriquitum from a 
burial place on the Flint river, and a calvarium 1 251) having 
a cephalic index of S3 52 and a slight flattening ot the lambda, 
were the only objects exhibited that were of especial interest to 
the craniologUt. 

A few pieces of metal work were shown o! the earlv historic 
p~n<xl, when tommahawks wt-re made by the earlv French 
traders by bending a piece of band iron into a loop and welding 
the ends, which were made to form the blade. 

Then there was one ol the silver breastpins, or bracelets, 
probably bought from the traders or given by the Catholic 
fathers. The cloth was drawn through a hole in the center of 
the pin and the tongue was thrust through in a manner similar 
to a buckle. This held th«* garment in place. The Penobscot 
Indians from Old Town, Maine, who were represented on the 
ethnographical grounds at the exposition, wore a pin of similar 
pattern. Material?* obtained from the Ayres mound, together 
with a photograph ot the mound, which was ot the typical conical 
form and contained strata of ashes, burned clay, etc., were also 
.shown. 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. lfc> 

A mass oi specimens from various parts of the valley, which 
could not be classed as from any particular village site, but 
thought to be more properly termed general surface finds, was 
arranged upon the basis of form. The chipped implements 
were placed together, then the celts, grooved axes, ceremonial 
slate objects, etc. With this lot of material was a red sand- 
stone celt, the material of which is supposed to have come from 
Lake Superior. 

The endeavor throughout the arrangement of the entire case 
was to give the best possible opportunity to study the speci- 
mens, to show a use (or such material and for careful exploration, 
and with the aid of maps and photographs to convey to the visi- 
tor some information respecting the archaeological resources of 
the Saginaw Valley. 

o 

PALKSTINK EXPLORATION Fl/NI). 

B\ Tiikopoke F. VVrkjht. 

For about a year wc have been anxiously waiting for the 
granting of the firman which was to open the way to new work 
of the most important kind. I can only report that the last word 
from I^ondon is reassuring, but shows the weariness of longing. 
The delays which the Turkish government cause are, of course, 
reasonable in its view, but to the outside world it seems as if the 
Palestine Fund, with its men of experience and scholarship, 
ought to be permitted to do what it will, provided damage to 
crops is paid for, as it would be. 

No one is idle, however, and Mr. Bliss is busy bringing out 
his book on Lichish. This is the first tell or city mound ever 
explored in Palestine, and its results show what may be expected 
in the future. There were certainly eight, and possibly eleven, 
cities succeeding each other on this site, and now wc know what 
sort of place it was which Joshua captured. From the tablet 
there found the highest expectations have arisen as to the future 
finds. 

The rainfall of Palestine, as shown by tables issued in the 
January (Quarterly, has increased marvelously. In one recent 
year, 1889, as little rain fell as ever before, but still, reckoning 
this in, wc have plain record that the average annual rain-fall has 
increased six inches, that it is six inches more for the last sixteen 
years than for the previous sixteen. The period measured was 
fronv 1861 onward. This change of rain-fall is the greatest 
blessing which could happen to the land. Should the increase 
continue, much more tillage will take place. To reach thirty- 
five inches of rain is an almost incredible change from thirteen. 

A very interesting study to anthropologists has lately been 



110 THE AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

made, and is also republished in the Quarterly, as to the orders 
of holy men or Dervishes. There are four such orders, and they 
claim for their respective founders the chief place in miracle- 
working The process ot initiation is described. The use of 
serjK-nts i> hilly investigated. The survival of sacrifices and 
other Ihble customs is- shown. 

The. Contour Map, which created so much interest at Chicago, 
is now in the hands of the best American maker, and it will not 
be long before, by the completion of contracts, the sale of copies 
can be announced. As there is some apprehension that Ameri- 
can work will not l>e of the same standard as the English, let me 
say that it is identically the same map which is reproduced, and 
that the coloring and so forth will be fully equal to the foreign 
work. 

As yet the Naifa- Damascus railway, which is progressing 
steadily, has oj>cncd no archaeological treasures, but it is likely 
to do so, especially when it has advanced further eastward. It 
is a great help to our work, as it will be to the traveler, in the 
near future. 

Cambridge, Mass. 

o 



Correspondence. 



THK MUTILATION OF ARCH.KOLOC,IC FINDS. 

lid i top American Antiquarian: 

Why is it that the first thought of the average man on the 
finding of an Indian relic seems to be, How can I best destroy 
or mutilate this thing ? Perhaps he will term it a "curiosity," 
which I have heard used in this relation. On picking up an arrrow 
or spear-head or other implement of flint he at once proceeds 
as a rule to pound its edge with his knife to show the bystanders, 
if any, how adroitly he can fetch the sparks ---especially docs he 
do this if the implement be an unusually fine one. If the speci- 
men be other than flint he either hacks, cuts, grinds, or dis- 
figures in some way if possible. One nameless individual, who 
should have known better, insisted on showing me how he could 
draw sparks by clinking one of my best spear- heads. On my re- 
straining him he insisted the more, perhaps thinking that 1 
doubted his ability to perform in that line; needless to say no fire 
was drawn. 

If one could have a lithe of the prehistoric implements which 
have been found during the last fifty years in our eastern Mohawk 
valley and regions closely adjoining, and which afterward have 
been destroyed, scattered or lost, a superb collection would 
result. 



MUTILATION OF AltCll.ttiLOUIC FINDS. Ill 

< >ne fine little pestle or j>aint-mullcr in my collection was dis- 
figured !)>• its finder by scraping with a knife. A beautiful little 
cup of steatite in my possession was smeared with a solution of 
aniline or some other red coloring matter, being thereby rubri- 
cated. I am afraid indellibly. A priceless pipe was smoked in 
and afterward dropped on a hard floor and badly cracked. Some 
few years ago a neighbor on picking up a finely made octagonal 
pijK! bowl, gave it to his little boy to play with, with the usual 
result, a smash. Another pottery pipe of a common Iroquoian 
form had been promised me, it could not be found. 

About twenty years ago, in the township of Glenvillc, at a 
point about five miles west from the city of Schenectady and 
being not far from the Mohawk river, was exposed, by the opera- 
tion of a steam shovel working in a gravel bank, a grave and its 
contents, which if it could have been placed, in the care of and 
properly described by a competent person would perhaps have 
been i^i considerable anthropological value. I did not hear of 
nor see the objects 'found until a long time after their dis- 
covery, or rather destruction, but what I finally did see, 
was a most beautifully preserved skull with solid teeth, 
Uhe interment had been made high in a ridge of gravel) 
a shuttle shaj>cd gorget of alabaster, some awls and a 
hook of bone, a lot of j>erforated shells, (no doubt a necklace,) 
two slate tubes, (possibly pipes), ornamented with carved lines, 
anil a fine copj>er axe. Some boys first noticed these relics, 
skeleton and implements all lying together in the gravel pit, and 
at once proceeded to stone them, and in so doing they smashed 
the two slate tubes. A brother of the owner of the quarry hear- 
ing of the find then stepped in and secured the objects, but he 
treated them not much better than did the boys, as he put the 
copper axe to the grindstone, perhaps thinking to give it a finer 
edge than the last owner had been able to do. I would here re- 
mark that this axe remains the only pre-colonial implement of 
copper yet found to my knowledge in Schenectady county save 
one, and this one exception is lost, though I have a slight hope 
of recovering it. 

Of the contents of this grave I was only able to secure the 
gorget, the rest were scattered, and the last I heard of the copper 
axe it had fount! its way to Williamsport, Penn. Probably by 
the rude manner in which this grave was exposed, many things 
were lost or overlooked, and it is certain that other graves were 
disturbed, for I was informed of one skeleton which had been 
tossed onto a car by the steam shovel before being noticed. 

I will inflict on the'reader but one more case from the many 
that have come under my immediate observation. In August, 
i8<)2 ,1 obtained from a farmer living near the outlet ot Saratoga 
Lake, a neatly formed gorget, made from the red slate which 
abounds in Washington county, N. V. 



112 THE AMKKKAX ANTIQUARIAN. 

This gorget, picked up on one of the sand dunes in that vi- 
cinity, being perfect when found, was afterward shattered badly 
on one end, the result of its being given to a child for a play- 
thing. Mr. A. G. Richmond, of Canajoharie, N. Y., tells me 
that he has suffered greatly through such vandalism. He in- 
forms me that he missed procuring a fine pipe by its owner in- 
sisting that he must retain it to smoke in. lie also mentions the 
finding of a beautiful polished corn pounder, eighteen inches 
long, which the owner allowed to be destroyed through pure 
cussedness. 

The reader may remember the curious stone image from Eastern 
Ohio, described and figured in Vol. Ill, Amkkk an Am ioiarian, 
(Oct. 1880) which was set up by its owner in a position "where 
it became the target for the stones thrown by all the small boys 
in the neighborhood." This curious object was afterward sent, 
minus chin, lips and nose, to the Smithsonian Institute on loan. 
Mr. Whittlesey, in the Smithsonian Report for i8Si, on page 
629, tells us of the destruction of other images found in Georgia, 

I suppose that the readers of this journal could add to these 
few cases mentioned, until the record of implements found per- 
fect, but afterward disfigured or totally destroyed, would sum up 
into the thousands. Would it not be an excellent idea if some 
one capable should write up and publish an appeal to the Amer- 
ican farmer in regard to this matter — an apj>eal which ought to 
be copied by every country paper in the land? In one sense, 
however, such an appeal might defeat its own object by leading 
the finders of prehistoric objects to place on such, an exaggerated 
value, unless so worded that such a result would not obtain. In 
regard to the half way piece-meal exploration or "digging for 
relics" in the mounds which dot the central states of our coun- 
try, Mr. Moorehead has said an able word in his paper, "Informa- 
tion for Collectors," published in the January ( 1X4*41 number of 
Tht- An hat oiogist Something might well l>e said about the 
importance of keeping together finds of associated ohiccts, such 
as the contents of graves, as in the case noted in this paper, and 
of articles found en cache. 

How often I regret the scattering to the four quarters of the 
earth, by exchange and gift, of the major portion of a fine lot ot 
lanceolate blades; this in my earlier collecting days. 

Happily I am able to record the preservation entire of a cache 
recently unearthed in this vicimtv bv a friend. The blades com- 
prising this find are of unusual form and the entire series uil! 
probably tafter some study) be presented to some museum. 

To all these wholesale charges of vandalism, there are numer- 
ous happy exceptions, many |>eoplc gladly tuin over relics, more 
or less valuable, to persons whom they know will appreciate and 
care for them, or send them to some milium, where they prop- 
erly should go. Here, however, a word of caution might be in 



LONG HEADS AND SHORT HKADS. 113 

place. Ik sure that the museum to which your donations are 
made, is one in which anthropology holds equal place with the 
other sciences. Objects of pre-historic workmanship might 
almost as well be buried under the pyramids as to be placed in 
certain public museums of note that I could name; — tucked away 
in some obscure corner; hidden from the light of day, and from 
the eye of the visitor by an array of stuffed birds, un stuffed me- 
gatheriums and what not; many series of interesting objects 
packed away in boxes and drawers, where they have lain for 
years, undescribed, uncatalogued and all but forgotten by the 
custodians of the museum. 

Luckily we have certain well known institutions, such as the 
National Museum, the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, the 
American Museum of Natural History at Central Park, New 
York, and others, where archaeological specimens may be sent 
with the full confidence that they will be appreciated for exactly 
their archncologic value. 

Percy M. Van Kits. 



()• 



ACCADIAN AND TURANIAN. 
EaUIoi A merit an Antiquarian . 

Referring to your previous letter, there is actually no evidence 
that Accadian is related to Turanian. Halevy denies it, and 
Haupt doubts it. They think the so-called Accadian is merely 
a cryptographic method of writing the Semitic Babylonian. I 
drop "Turanian" and prefer "Siberic" for all that group of agglu- 
tinative languages which can be traced back to Siberian regions. 
"I'ral-Altaic " is scarcely broad enough. Truly, 

December 24. 18^3. D. G. Hrintus. 



-0 



LONG-HEADS AND SHORT-HKADS. 
Iitittt>r Ant 1 man Antiquarian; 

In the Amkkh an Amn -arias for November, ifyj.page 356, 
you gave a short review of "Primitive Man in Ohio," by \V. K. 
Moorchead, in which I see my name mentioned as contributing 
a chapter to said work. In the preface, p. vii, Mr. Moorchead 
credits me with writing Chapter III on the Muskingum Valley, 
and savs: Kach author is resj>onsible for the statements set forth 
in his department. 

What I wrote was concerning my explorations of the mounds 
in Adams Township and adjoining territory in Washington 
County. Ohio, with a brief mention of the mounds between 



114 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Marietta and Mcrjs' Creek, Morgan County, a distance of about 
thirty miles Rut the author seems to make it appear that this 
part of the Muskingum Valley was inhabited by a long-headed 
race of Mound-builders, which was not the case. On page jS, 
he says: 7/tr rrama an all diHiotcplialii. In my article I did 
not say anything about the long-heads or the short-heads. 

I have five fine skulls in my collection, all found within one- 
half mile of Lowell, and they are all short-heads; all the skulls 
I have ever found in this valley that were perfect enough to give 
an idea as to their shape have been of the same kind. I never 
found but one lot of long-head skulls, .ind they were taken from 
a mound on the banks of the Iroquois river, near Rensselaer, 
Indiana. I have the only perfect one of the lot in my cabinet. 

Yours respectfully, 

Lowell. Ohio, Dec 20, 1X03. Wii.i.akh II. Dwk 



THK TKRRAi'K OR STKPPI.D FKilRK. 
Editor American Antiquarian : 

Your drawings cativ em losed. Of course you know that 
Mr. Holmes believes the double terrace to be, but a modifica- 
tion of the meander, produced of necessity in basketry, and after- 
wards transferred from basketry to jMrttcry. Mr. dishing, I 
think, says that the people of /uni interpret it as meaning the 
terrace of the pueblo below and the terrace of the storm clouds 
above. Since the svmbol is used bv manv races who have no 

* mm 

terraced pueblos, this explanation can hardly account for the 
origin of the pattern. The Navajos think it symbolizes the 
white zigzag lightning on a black cloud. The p.ittern shown 
in one of your drawings, ami common from Peru to Arizona. I 
have seen somewhere interpreted as an animal symbol 

Yours very truly, 

\Y\MIIV. !• «N M \ 1 I III 'A -. 

l-'ort Wingate. New Mexico. Nov. 2;. 1 S. ,3 



■1 >• 



MnMIOR PIPK IN NOVA mUTIA. 

Editor , I ntt i u an . /'/.':./:* antn . 

In regard to the pipe with a keel, <>t uhi< h I wrote. I dt<! n«>t -ay 
anything of its resemblance to a boat, though the lower (art of 
the stone, on uIikIi the IhjwI was planted, was in shajx- like the 
keel of a vessel This was the only thing I iouId compare it to 
—the idea of a boat was not suggested 

Mr. Harry Piers has trotted ihe collection of In !ian rehci u\ 
our provincial museum II > pafier is published in the Trans- 



ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTES. 115 

actions of the Nova Scotia Institute of Science, Vol. VII. He 
adopts my description of this pipe (it resembles a glass stopper in- 
verted — Ki>.) as having the lower part like a keel, and gives a plate 
i»f <>nc in the museum. I will try to get a copy and send you. 
What I think more singular is the finding of a flat pipe (monitor 
pattern) in Nova Scotia. It is figured in the same work. I at 
first douhted whether it could have been found here, but am 
assured that it was. Sincerely yours, 

Gehkc.k Patterson, 
New (ilasgow, Nova Scotia, Nov. 10, 1893. 



ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTES. 

llY A LIU KT S. GaTSCMKT, WASHINGTON, I). C. 

I>k. It ill's Pi. at/mans, well known to scientific readers by his accurate 
reprints of ancient Central ami South American grammars and dictionaries 
has written a lxx>k of small volume in which he gives his reasons for 
reprinting such relics of the past. The title is: "Wesshalb ich Neudrucke 
der alten amerikanischcn Grummatiker vcranlasst babe." Leipzig, B. G. 
Tcubner, iS«>v i.'mo., pp. 136. In this publication are treated problems 
of phnnctio, morphology of language, of affinities of words existing in 
words of the most distant countries, of ethnogenesis, phytogenesis, anthro- 
pogenesio. Although many of his readers may disagree from him on etymo- 
logical topics, wc are always ready to hear what a scientist of world-wide 
travel and of much literary experience has to state about the work that be 
has made the pur|>ose of his life. 

One of his latest ami very meritorious republications is the "Diction- 
aire CaranV-l- raiu.ais compost 4 par le K. P. (Reverend Pitci Raymond 
Bret«»n. I.dition Facsimile." Leipzig, B. G. Tcubner, i8y2. 121110., pp. 
480. I he original was printed at Auxerre t France) by Gilles Bouquet in 
!<•»;. and b\ its numerous remarks to many of the vocables is of great util- 
ity to the ethnologist and naturalist as well as to the linguist. It is printed 
in two rolitnn^. the Indian in Roman, the French in italic type. 

1 111 Ni-tt "Gi i»i:i\"' The geographic and ethnographic weekly periodical 
tifrhtt. published b\ Viewcg of Braunschweig, appears this year in a novel 
shape, having substituted the Roman to the German or "Gothic" type, but 
appearing as it did before in quarto, the editor, Dr. Richard Andrcc, remain- 
ing in « har^'e. With the nr^t of January, 1894. it enters upon its sixty-fifth 
half vearlv \oh;me. It has l>ecn consolidated with Cotta's "Ays/ami," a 
period:* al \»hi< h was pursuing the same purposes in furthering the science 
of nature ar.-i of man. and had been before the public for sixty-six years. 
The editorial -taif is composed of literary and scientific men of note, and 
the artist- are furnishing the be^t of work in illustrating. Articles on 
Amen< a appear frequently, as may be seen by the following list: Andree, 
a Brazilian ax in anchor shape; Nielsen, Mexican Cave-Dwellers; Dr. 
Philippi. I ruption of the Calbuco; Fi»crstemann, Central American Caleti- 



HO THK AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

dar System. Dr. Seler. the Quimbaya; Chilean Stone Age; Nansen's Polar 
fcxpedttion. 

Hfwiii on I'm \s\ mhi Ms. The subject of polysynthrsis observed in 
the language* nf North ami Smith America has i ailed forth the inhumes 
ami divergent opinions of many scientists. Some < unfounded it with unor- 
poratiou. others thought it was one ot the various wavs nf incorporation. 
Many students thought it was a feature distinguishing Auirrn an languages 
In mi all other*, while utheis who knew better denied this. |<» render this 
ini|>ortant point of lin^uisti- s muic < lcar and to » reatc a sober basis for 
a fruitful dis« u^sion ot the matter, |. N. !'•. Hewitt, a Tuskarora Indian by 
birth and a member of the bureau ot kthnology, has taken up the question 
again and published his views mi the " \mern an Anthropologist, « >. tuber 
number of iK>j). pp. }M 107 At first he attacks the pKMtion «■:' l'eter S. 
Dupomeau. who-e definition ot pol\ synthesis is (hi wide and general, and 
based one widely on the Mudv of the imperte- t Algonquin materia'. a< < <s-i 
ble to him. l>r. Patnel (». brintmi, wlm w rotea *pe< uil treat's**, entitled 
"Polysynthesis and lm orporation as < hara» teriMu »» <>t Ameroan I. in 
guages, " 1* is then * nti< i»ed and h.s definition* revoked in dmibt as defe* t 
ive and incomplete, pp. ;-j2 | *>. l-ol!uw tlicopiriimi" of Wiiiiam P. \Yhitne\, 
Dr. I.iebcr ami 1. Owen Porsey upon the question. 

Another paper of the same author deal* with the "I" r.t • »l the formation of 
the historu league ot the Ir«Hjuois. I he < 'omuicm ernent ■•! that era had 
Itcen p!are<l by Horatio Hale about the year 1 |'«i. but Hewitt b-r n a*mis 
stated bv him afsign* :* to a pem»d a'»ou* \. P., 1 . * 

«>M\H\ !\in \N Mi i* . In line, \&,\. thr Peabudy Muftetnu. 1 an. bridge. 
had published No. ; ot :ts o< taio series ut paper*. w h 1 h • 01, tarns '. / >/n-/i 
0/ l>m%th.i InJiaH ,1/i* /. 1-v Aiue t 1 !et« her. as* Man! :!i Xme* . .111 
Kthnolog\. Peahodx M.iscum!. and holder «■! V 1 M.aw I eiSovtsh • . ,i.<:ed 
by r rain 1 ■ I.a Hesi he. ;j. i;j I his k.'i rt ■«■• 1./ pub!:- a'.ot, * j .-tr mr 
side ot the run •'! ord»:.ar\ 'mmiks and \\ %* | \ t •# h» 1 ■ i* ii''ed ! n r.: iur 
writing «»n tin* and other Indian *«:b[« • ts bv a re».-!er: e «•* '■ ■. tears .i»i ..«,g 
the < hnaha and other tribe'* ««! the 1 >ako*a*. *"". k. ° •■ '-i- a'» -*-.« , .ied **,r 
mng* of the Pa*!r.'e« and N>*-- pert > . I "i s '..i*; «:i ■ • .-■<•«! •; ' .• »: t - \-s 
itctl tui an <>ffi« i.ti trip !■• Idaho, •■rt wh.> h she had t-« ap;-or»- •• ! r.d*. m 
9CVcra!t\ to the Nr. Pen* » l.i!ii:!n'v M.tn\ ««r n:o»: ' •■ e i'iii4'..i »«-igs 
are Ming during the religion ••? * eietuon.al •Um««i*I :.m ; ■ i-p!» ■■•i.rr* 
were %ung to her when she »i> prus'ratrd b% s • k?:e->» in her :«-• ■ 1 hr 
baritone and mr.'/n --'prario are more t mnmon thati the h-^her «-r !>iwr» 
rla5s of vnurv < 'pen a.r ^ii-Cir.,* tends to •tram the *»«■.« e and !h« re s ;.* 
tie attempt to render ft.tn • or t^tt* pa«s.igrs. < »? ,;reat ass.sMri r t« her 
was Fr. 1.4 \ les« he. an < >inaha by birth and • !erk v\ ! l .r P.ure.m ■! « - *!iar* 
Affairs at the • apilal. f«»r h»- is tfrnr-'U^hlv fi"i a .!:ar **i!h t 1 r ::r;»: r.-i v.c'. 
miles id his people. Thrr* 1 are right% ei^hr l:,d:a:. s,,r. fc * with the * 'matta 
text l»elovii , arranged fur the piarn- and !-ur haviti^* the 1 nti* ■•tiis lh> 
arrangement «s «t;ie to Professor \**\\\\ C«i:i;!ort rdlm»»ie. \ ^! . *ln> ,i!mi 
added a l"ng " re|»«»r! w tlie stru* t'ira! p**t •.i!iar:i:t-<. .<j tf»e :.::*;« How 

«nrrett;\ Ntr. FiKmorr has repr<«hi< e«l the tru»- a» * ents ut o ; ;iah » rii'is . 

fiani|»r.V* e* u e» ■ ii»: '■■»*■ ■ ir-r*f *. .-. i\*- | «tl J !• • * .t- ■ 



KTHNCXSRAPIIIC SOTKS. 117 

the present reviewer is unable to say, for he docs not belong to the rare 
birds who combine musical science with a scientific knowledge of Indian 
music, being acquainted only with the mru*si\ .1/ ;u cents of our family and 
pet animal, the cat. 

A. F. H\ni»kliik's Final Kf.I'mkt, Hart II, to the Archa ological Insti 
tute of America (American Scries, No. IV) of his "Investigations among the 
Indian- o| the Southwestern tinted States. carried on mainly in the years 
from 1HS0 to 1885, ' 'Cambridge, Mass., 180,2), forms a beautiful, illustrated 
\olumc of 5<ji octavo pages. In some respects tlti- is a recapitulation of the 
author* researches previously published, but in others it is perfectly original, 
and throughout it is fascinating by the novelty of the scenes that come to 
\tew, remarkable by the familiarity of the author with all parts of the coun- 
tries drscrd»ed, by the historic and geologic tableaux presented, and by the 
wealth of erudition net essary to complete such a work a* this The narra- 
tive leads us from the pueblo* ot the Taos, Tehua*. Tartos, to the mines of 
the upper l'eco* River, then along the upper Rio («rande to feme/, the 
Tigua* and the I'iro* into Northern. Kastern and Southern An/ona. Tucson, 
the Sierra* Huat huca and Catiatu-a. From there ue are led across the 
Uiundarv nf the Tinted States into the valleys of the Sonora River and 
< iposura to the upper Ya<|ut and to Northwestern Chihuahua, through 
mounts and t lift*, uood* and deserts, *andy (dams and yucca field*, ruins 
and inhabited pueblo*. The most f carles* American explorer of our times 
ha* earned for hun*e!f b\ this book a lasting monument, not a* an antnpia- 
f art urdv. but a* a historian as well. 

l>u. I. W\i 11 H Fr-wki s. a New Fngland an ha ologi*t and memt>cr of 
the Hemenuav Southwestern Archaologic.al expedition, is now busy in 
dc*i nbmg and lonunenting the I'ucblos. the ruins, the sights anil cus- 
toms observed bv him in the southwest in the past years. The following 
article* were prodtjt cd by him in the "American AnthrojK)logist." iKoj: 

1. "\ l"i mk\i Ami m< an < i.ki mom. which suggests the snake dance 
ot the lusa\au'or llopi, Mokn villager*." The festival discovered to be 
anaii'^'uis t<> the *nake dance is the atamahjuabt/tli. or fc*ti\al of the 
un*aitcd. «»r unspned) water pancakes, as described by Father Sahagun 
and 1 clchrated every eighth year. The Nahuatl text. Dr. Seler's < ierman 
and l>r. I ewkes' I ngbsh translation are subjoined. To explain similarities 
like these m < urrin*: between many trd>cs along the Pacific coast, we shall 
do hcI! to remember that the Shoshoman division, to which Tusavan 
belong*, pertains to the same linguistic stock as Nahuatl. 

2. \u \i«»iu; an an h. 1 <>!ogical verification of a Tusayan legend. The 
present inhabitants of the Mokt I'ucblos remember certain event* that 
took pia« c m their < otintrv and ended with the destruction of the Pueblo 
Aw.itobi. or "Pla« e of the How People," in 1700. These events arc attested 
in a dm umctit id 171^ and Dr. Fewkcs' investigation of the ruins tends to 
confirm in a w.-nderfu! manner what the legend states al»out the occurrence, 

V I >r. r c*kc* ha* al*ocomf»oscd an instructive article "On certain person- 
age* whu.ippcar in a Tu*ayan ceremony.' the name of whu h is Pow.imuh. 
It is celebrated m January, and men appear in it disguised as monsters 
<nati*hka The dress, disguise and |>araphcrnalia of the men are fully 
described and made plain by a numlicr of illustrations, ami comparisons 
with similar < eremonies arc adduced from Sahagun and other Mexican 



lis T11K AMKKK'AN ANTajlAKIAN. 

m»uh«-». lAuii'ii' an Anthropologist IS;|, pi*. \2 52. It has -eveial point- 
in iiiiiciitiii with d.e . /i/:ifi:/.//i of the Nahu.i-, and Midi die /•< n,t o! the 
Maya**. 

KxJi mi: v 1 iu\ isNti imAmikI' \. I »r. I In man ten Katr ha- returned 
last \eai t rmii In* < >i caim a* d Niii!i Anient an explorations to >»< hevemunen 
in !!•• land, ami is now di^estim.; hi- held n«»if* 1«r preparm,; report-, t Mu- 
ni hi* report* will appear in die " Ke\ .st.i del Mtis«.i. Aruffitmo " at lal'lata, 
Argentinian Kep ihln . Ai.nther was m nt to the • luc! editor .-t die Amen 
ran Anthropologist, I>r. frank Ilaker. and w.11 appear in tht '-e\t r.umher 
of that j-erKHlti.il. His exploration** and dis< overies in Indonesia .ire to Im- 
printed as .1 serial in " T\ds«hrifl \. het A.udi\k>k detiootvhap in the 
\ear l S- > |. profusely illustrated. I he editor »•! the " Internationale- Anhiv 
fur Kthno^raphie," I>r. '. I •. I . >• hinelt/, «lisi ii-m-* the art hi o!ogi< al 
exploration- rei et.tl\ ina<Ie m Northwestern Argentina, .is follow*. "The 
Museum ot I. a 1'l.ita sent out an exped .!;oii to the northwestern provmte- 
of the repuhlie. liesule- ^eo^raphn .tl .n,d ceolo^u .il explorations, its 
ohict t was the study and » ollei tm^' o! » all ha«|i;i antxjuitit -. I Mini:;; the 
ucarK four mouths of tieid work, the museum expedition under the leader 
ship ot the «!ire< tor, l>r. I rant i-« ■• I'. Moreno, lias 1 «»1U* ted \ er\ mi'toMani 
material and numerous an h.i oh»^n al oh-ei is, potter >, ot various m/i> and 
dc« oration .unplementsof stoneand hone.i opper ornaments fetiches, remains 
of textile fahru s,hum.iii Imties.eti . Many petro^raphsui n . ••piedand several 
ruins surveved. I>r. II. ten Kate, in former year- a menit-et ot the lleruen 
nay Anli.iolii^iC.il expedition, under Mr* ush:nj», ui> more partit ulariv 
in 1 Ii.tr^e «•! the an h 1 olo^n al set tion ot the museum > expedition. M:s 
former expenent e enahled him to nnd man> para!. els set ween the Muwi or 
/uni 1 ulture and the !.<•* extini t < ah hamn 1 :v i!i/.il:i>n. I hi t.eld ot explc 
ation was situated 111 the mountainous regions ot d.« prolines ot * ita- 
nurr.i, Tin uman and *salta, espei iail\ m the vaiie\ ot >auta Maria, 1 a 
« hao^ui ar« h.i oh>^\ is \er\ little know n a- \et. Ke< e> t puMn atioiis .»n the 
suhtet t are tho-e m the Kctista and Analc- of the I a I'lata Mi, cum, and 
in the Amer.' an Anthropologist tS.|i.hy I >r. Moreno « ,. I \U£\ at d I atone 
<|ueved«» 

lliM..%il\s I IllS'H.i win I ike a!! ithei • ulluri d a ia!i"fi-. Huu^art . 
or the eastern parr ot the Austrian « mp.re, alvi has ;•.. 1 d::.- ■■.•■si*. nh«» w ith 
threat mdustr\ and rtellc« tual | *»«er are -ear* hmi; thi ett.ii ■ pet -.;!iarit:e* 
of th< natn-t.s r.halutili^ the \a«-t realm I i.e ed:!*«! . •.; . ( *. nTt r* -t;r ^ ma^' 
a/me puhlished tor th» purpose \u hudape-t * 1 « I'rot. Arif- •:. Herr* ..ir.n and 
I.uduifcj Katoiu. 1 he pi ri'Hiit a! s poIvj;l"tt ■ . hu* « ■i.rip.m-* .*-< l! *i -re ain! 
more to tlie • .» rn.ar. la:. K 'ua^e i»- tide is 'I thi.--o)*!si Ve Mitleuui^ef 
aus I n^ar:.. s^Ie-rh \ri r.^* t •!• r < .e-e! •• f.att t r <lr \ ■ k» rkundr 
I iikC.irns I rom the ••n k ;iiial • | - 1 » r t ■ ■ *i.c t k a- Si !i ted .■ nl \> the 

more han«)\ t»« ta\«» n i%,i !<»ur ta« • !• ■ \\.i\ :»: heer» ss- td ss»n r then. 
N»»lif of die ea»!eMi :..i':ii!i- ■■! Au-li a, Kuss .1 or I '.;rke\ .irrex* u> r^! Irorp 
its tolumtis .in* at t rut s ethr.o^raphn r:e»- •!• ::: A*i.i and A!f.« .1 ri.a\ N* 
insertetl als . s>mi •>! the r..-tewordi\ fcc'.'. a f v- '.e* are the !"•• lom in,. 
Alhancv l'e»«p.i ot Nla\*>ii:.i k.*:i.: and Wr.'ii^ An. **t.£ \\o«;u.*ard < K» 
jaks. < o-m"'^-''^ o! tin Wo^u* Ma^\ar l'.»p ilar |'..i! atl*: s pari>h < o" . 
niesm Huu^arx I'u; « h ai.'I ! :d\ t» I urkev . *. h:!dre:i s djinr* .1. I*a:ift>. 
vania. !t.i. an N'li^ !r.:-:. I .-.::. e < »r: H-;n K Mr .i\ 1 ,\ p^iev l»!uv al Ma* n 



KTHStMJIlArillC NOTKS. mi 

llungar\. I he Saxon* of Transylvania; A Posiuan Guslar Song. "King 
M .it hi. is ami Pctei « iereb." 

l.ui h\ii i i on llrt>i)in>xi is quite rich nowadays in publications <if all 
sorts and !cnden< ics, and students of Buddhism are <|uite surprised how- 
near its founder, Gautama, approached the principles which were, six cen 
turns later, embodied in the christian religion. Ranking anions the 
most notewotth\ of recent t>ooks on that Asiatic fi»nn of .self-abnegation 
and ast etu ism is Prof. I>r. Adolf Itastian "s "/Vr lluiitihismus u/s f/7/^ r /«»«c- 
phiic**phi*< h t s >\ \fr-m." Iierltii. l&t\, which is an incjuiry into its essence 
and « hicriy into its origin. It show* that this most remarkable of all the 
oriental religions is lia«c«! more especially on speculation and research than 
/oroastrianism and i onfuciamsm, and that iu later periods of its evolution 
was profoundly merged m mysticism. The purpose of Haitian's publication is 
to prove alvi that the metaphysical systems of India originated independently 
of occidental philosophies, but that nevertheless they offer most fruitful 
and abundant points of Comparison with the systems developed around the 
Mediterranean sea. Whatsoever Buddhism may have achieved in earlier 
c|M»chs for the improvement of the human race, it can not Ik* contested that 
the spirit of quietism and mysticism prevailing in it now is antagonistic to 
the progressive tendem ics of our western world. 

M Twi> lssridi'i in.ss i»t I.i'.mnon." The mystery of the origin and attiu- 
Hies of the F.truscan language is not yet brought to a satisfactory solution, 
though all the Kuropean and many of the other Mediterranean languages 
ha\e been compared. The tongue in which the two short inscriptions 
are composed, which were found in 1HS5 on the island of I.emnos, is gener- 
ally called by the vague term /Wii^vi .• and shortly after their publication 
l>r. Car! I'aiih declared that language to be a dialect of Ktruscan. Results 
like these are exceedingly questionable, for we do not know the significa- 
tion of any won. of t»oth languages with any degree of certainty. G. Klein- 
schmidt. counselor in lnsterburg. eastern parts of Prussia, attempts to con- 
nect the I.emman language with the Kcttic and Lithuanian, spoken near 
his home, in a pamphlet just published at lnsterburg,* and the probability 
of h;s results is not a bit greater or smaller than those of the linguists who 
connect Ktruscan with Celtic, Roman, Greek or < >crman. Kleinschmidt 
also believes I emniati to be akin to Ktruscan. Sure enough, the inscrip- 
tions are not < treek. 

A < ft i:\i\n !>«»< h»i< |i iiii.ki . The fiftieth anniversary of a professors 
do* titrate has always l»een a festive affair for German universities. Nowa- 
days when a professor eiiiny* much |H»pu!anty, his numerous disciples vcill 
compose sln.rt a:.d long articles referring to the scientific branches which 
have i*ecii the oh»e< t ot his teachings; they are printed in hook form for his 
fiftieth di>4 tor. iic and then presented to him and to the public . Nunc ot 
these iiobli m« tmiriaU attain a large si/c. the one before us. dedicated to Prof. 
Rudo'.f \rin Roth. Sanscritist and* >nentalist. holds 22} paces closeh printed, 
and cmbtHlies m> !es* than forty four contributions by men ranking high in 
*« ien« e, as Tho*. Aufrecht. P. I'clbrmk. Karl <»cldner, luhu> J«>lly, Chas. 
R. Kanman, Ti.os. N>»ldeke. lohti Schmidt, K. Sievers. \V. I). Whitncv. 

•/*c. >n.n » ir In* l.r Mm I rtx>rs<t/t 11ml rrklart \i>n < t. Kirin«chmtlr. In*tert>urg 
l*rt-t» »f V\ hen. . iv:,^. .tip h >-epai4tc!\ printed fr>»tii /c;t»i!.t;ll ijr» Iu«terbur. 
frt A.trttl. .11.% \ etr n*. N - III. 



rjn THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



NulKS <>N 0>\11\\RATIVK KKUGJoNs. 

M»-..Al.Ki » i» J u< \ is has been preparing reprodu* lions from the Assyrian 
sculpture- nt ihe lirstish Mii-tutn. A few years a^o we secured t»o beau- 
tt f ill statuettes nt Sordanapulu* and hi- t|uceii, in terra rotta. and pn/e them 
\cry highly. >\inv tti.it tune Mr. |ar\i* has prcpatctl several others am! 
now lias a new one ti. add to the sent--. 1 hese reproductions arc in the 
highest >tvle ft ait and are exact mutations of the original statues in 
miniature. We < an < ommend them to our readers 

Mh. 1'kimi is —till m I L'vpt, cmitiiiumi: his explorations at Kaft, hut he 
expei ts to return to 1 ondon < K upland i hy the end of April, in time to 
deliver his prmi:i«ed lectures at the Royal Institution. Ihe lihrarv and 
inihcum tounded hy the late noted I cyptolouist. Miss Amelia K. Kd wards, 
ami placed at I'niversity 1 ••lleue. London, under Mr. I'etne - t are. is now 
open. 

Amm'i UiiR^iih The editor of the Amkkicw Amh.m \mi\n wrote 
an artulc a frw year* .mo, whit h was read tiefor«: the Ameru an Oriental 
>04 ict>, »»n annual worship and sun worship in Kgypt, in whit h he took the 
ground that the earliest < ult in th.it country niuM have h<-en ti>temism tir an- 
imal worship. I tils i «»me« turc now pro\cs true, for Mr. Atnci mean call- atten 
tion to the fat t that il.cn- are pit turc- of < e rcuioma.- 44 l»'i>>.isti> in whicti 
the * ult of aii.uials i>> i ii.«r!\ shown. Mr. Na\ ilic also has «ho«n from ttie 
-arnc pit turc- on ttie I c-tiv.d ll.i!! of the >.une trinpli . tti.it of O-orkin II 
o! the twentv -c« mitt dwiaM\. tti.ti the lo«al cult- • •! l icyp! resembled those 
of ttir i hinc-e. mih e the *ame rt vert n« e w.i* p.nd to the ' 1 m per or as ttie 
•'-on of Heaven, .iml to I h.ir « »aL. tin "-on <•♦ ttie -un. 

I \|\h»k i \i 1 1 > t >| i hi sin |. I ht ir.st ript.o-i <>-. iht ■ n-hc of a -tatuc of 
ttie <i«»d Hailad. )*•■> m •** \ears |l t , |o t? e etic \ \: \* ttie K tiii* 
i an.iinmori I. ad'ures hi- dest er dai.t- tt» utter a ! i«atit-». .ir«! ;.r. 'tn^e- that 
•'when my name :- pnnor.i ed .mil the formula rt » *.te !. ,l, .r s«. j »•! I'ai.am- 
mav ui.iv it f lrii.k w:!l, tt.ee. !i.t-*- the soul of I'an.iv.'i ■•;; m . »!r nk with 
thee 

\\« II M I > Mil I l\ ( ii!\ \. I'rkm. it t h.n.i. it the ..it ,i! * l\ . whit h 
is t •tiipti^i d t.f hi'ir i .!,» s •": e t cntral one *>t'iin; the ' • r. e • •! ttie emperor 
Here ttie i hie! temp t - .tre the 1 .una •• srp'e. the I ..nfi: .it te* p e. and the 
temple ft Hc.imi,. I tie .irtc? ha-» an .i tar • ■! whv.e n-aiMe .itnl represent- 
the ti'tftirM form of wm-L.p i. ' h:r..i I tie I atra tcrrp.e ha- .ir. altar to 
Kuddah *event\ tct ! \\'.&t. I > « ie.ithn^ * ••.tut an shrine h.is .lU.ut \\\ 
wall** tat»iet- ••! a!! ttir !er.ir\ /r.iduat«-«t for ;.>, \i*ars tt.it k !r. \j«. k 'j^i n 
a !hiddi-ti temple » f. tt ■ ir.fiiti.itt i« p art .d>»;;t fifteen teet li-^h. 
e.a*»«ir.i!e!v t.u\e«! » rh tir.i.-n-.s, .i!*«t < .«:.tut >an templet t»«*»efini? 
.it ir* >>i !errit«-r\. •:. t* - tenipie ?here are !.i*» ets. I »-. it i.o altars 
lai »tion. "ttie w'reat •••■•-.int.ii!.. s tif.e »>f ? re i!er«iset! sa» red < »n the 
-umitut. j.** !n-! tji*: 1 .. :s ttie lea.tjj.j temj .e t with an linage reprr*cnt:nc 
the 'p:ri! oi the tnouM.ti:. Iti ■» a*.!eda!c» 1 * inf *:* : ;-, ft»r 4..1U \ear% a»»o 
Mimn. .1 prttle- c***tt «>! t otitut u- • arne tiere and vu riti* e»l The altar to 
Hea>en. r. \'*k::i. * *■'. -i.arti.r, • r« ular n shape, witti %uci*es»ive terrace* 



HOOK RKVIKWS v>\ 

which arc respectively 210, I >o, 70 feet in diameter, each iiinc feet high, 
with four staircases from each point of the compass. On the top are nine 
tents of hluc silk, which are erected to Heaven, which is regarded as a 
divinity. On the middle terrace are tents to the sun. the moon, the stars, 
rain-clouds, thunder and wind. A little north of thit altar is the temple of 
the Imperial expanse. Here the Emperor leads in the worship of the 
tablets in a grand pageant on the 21st of Dereml>er every year, amid the 
dun light of suspended lanterns, the fragrance of incense, the peals of 
music, and the lurid glare of the sacrificial tires. From Missionary AV ."#>«•, 
hehruaty. 1^)4. 

kit.K.inNsoK Ciiin\. The religions of China are first, ancestor worship, 
introduced as early as 2235 II. C: second, Tavism. founded 700 II. C.; Con- 
fucianism, fioo II. C; ltuddhism, 70 A. 1).: Judaism, Ncstorianism, Moham- 
medanism. Ancestor worship isasold as the empire itself. Ithad itsonginboth 
in the family and in the nation. It is the key-stone of the empire arid has 
bound the inedlev of tribes into one nation. Confucius was a transmitter o! 
it. The worship of tablets was introduced 2205 H. C. in the third dynasty. 
Every house is a shrine in which are tablets to ancestors. Each clan has 
also its own particular "ancestral hall." where the tablets were deposited. 
"The Feast of the Tnmlis" is celebrated at the spring and summer solstice. 
The only idolatry is that contained in the tablets, as the spirits of ancestor* 
are mi p posed t«» dwell in them. 



HOOK REVIEWS. 

'I ht ( hara, ter and Influence of the Fur Trade in II 'iston<tn. \\\ Frederick 
I. Turner. iH8<>. 

This address of Professor Turner covers the whole time from the time of 
the appearance of Jean N:colet in Wisconsin to the settlement of the state 
b\ American people in 1822. It takes in the primitive aboriginal trade, 
sketches the Wisconsin Indians, French exploration, French posts, the 
English period, the Northwest Company. American influences and the 
Wisconsin trade via Chicago in 1821. It is an excellent summary and 
shows great familiarity with the history of the state. 

iltitory of Amuitts. Charm* and 'Talismans. Ily Michael L. Kodkinsoti. 
New York. iS*,v 

The fear felt by the people of the East for sorcerers urged them to seek 
devices for pn 'lection, hence arose the amulet and charms. Some of these 
were m the form of plates worn on the forehead, others representee! images 
of gods. The Hindoos < all them talismans, the Romans amulets, and the 
Mesopotamiaii s tcraphun. The Jews l>orrowed from the ItabyloMans 
during the exile a peculiar kind of charm. The Somaritan amulet is in the 
*hape <>f dovc» wings. The Thansees, in the time of Christ, had charms in 
the shape of Ihh'.ica! texts; the same custom was continued. The Hebrew- 
letter "shin. ' with three heads, is adopted by the Jewish Christians as an 
emblem of the truntv. 

The Hebrews :n Egypt wore frontlets called "tolaphoth," after the two 
god*. M Thoth ' and "I'hath. The idol M Toth" had at his disposal the "tiee 



121' TIIK AMKKKAN ANTIglWKIAN. 

«»l lite. and was as^oc.ated with !hr nln! "Path, " who «a» the god of #, iight." 
May it not he that this was the • »nijiii t»f the "I 'run ami Thumtmm" worn 
h\ the |.fii*-»t a! the t.iue •■! tin- 1 \mhis, thest w opl- Mgnif vin.ij "sh-ning' 
and ' perfeet. 

Ik,- hi> tint 1'ii /'a'nViVi- ' IV . ///•.//;. I".\ K«>:ii\ii lht< hfoi k. Wash 
iiigton. i^<*. 

The .up it'fii te« old • «»f the lapanese • "lit. tin- illusions to the I ave dwellers, 

whnh k'o ha« k !■■ i"> I*. < 1 lie Civ e timelier* arc sappo-ed foliate been 

lief ore the X.iiiis, makiiii* ihree distim t ra« es in Japan. The I ' 1 1 - 1 1 v% ellers, 

however, are mcire reiciit. -nine of them are supposed to stimve to the 

present turn . I hi- pamphlet speaks <»f the survivors am! de»rribe* their 

present < 1 *r :* S 1 1 1« «f i . 

/.f\tft./s >/ //.v Mi.m.t •' I'.y K« v . Silas 'lerr.us K.iihI. New \ ork and 
I ondon 1 « it. wTii :.ir.-. <ireen «\ Co. I>->J. 

the material wh<h appears n. this hook ».h olire -n the hands ot the 
editot of the Ami ml w A\ri«u \i -l an, ami a « op\ of the nati\e myths was 
t.iken with the thought that some oi them might he se!e« ted .irot published 
in this magazine (foni ot ihem were published . I he editor was however, 
informed that the Historical Sex :etv ot Nova Scotia would publish them 
am) so the ttook of manus< upts *js returned. 1'rofcssor Horsford after* 
ward secured it from the heirs • •{ the author and placed it in the library <»t 
Wellesleyl ollege, the \alueol the material toilet ted by the untiring indus- 
try of the Rev. I>r. Kami being readilv re<ogm/ed bv him. 

"I he editor ol this 1mm, k is Helen I . Webster, professor of the department 
of Comparative I'htlologv, who his written a *ket< h of the life ot the author 
I>r. Kaud. ami a short essay upon the manners and « ustoius ot the Mn m.n 
Indians, as an introduction. She informs us that the author was a mission- 
ary who, for turty trars, w.is using his talent m*i on!) in prca< hing to the 
natives, but in literary work. Mr was ac«|uai')tcd with twelve d:tterent 
languages and was an adept in the Mn ma< language, of wh:i h he pub 
lished a dictionary. The list of his published works and iiijuuv rtpts run 
up to sevcnt\ ti\e titles, besides this hook m«w puh'i«hed. whnh i ontams 
450 pages and eightv seven ditleient mvths. 

Kfttatn /Vrn*n.t K m ' u /: » ///r.ir t*i .1 /uawin t ft ,«/.•«> li> I. Waiter 
I cwkes. Reprinted tmiii The Amern ai. An'hr»»p«i"o K j,t. \..|. \ II.. 
No 1. Washington lanuary. 1&4I 

This is a 1 ontinuat;<»n o| tie vilijet't discussed .*. the previous review. 

He savs *'I rai es of the vtn.e . ult are to l»e found in « >ld Me\:» o and the 

'lus.naii villages, show.rig a re-atio:. between Nahua and I usavat. rnvth- 

ologies. I'he masks a'.d head dresses, representing the »> m boh sin •«( the 

tleities, are ties, ribrd. ^orne o! these, tit thinks represent a!hgator heads 

Several do!!* agree n sv inlM»hsm with that o! the masks He *••?!. pares 

these with the figure* .;tv» :. b\ *sahagun I hese tigurei represent ».irr «irs 

« lad with the sku.s ot an::na •> I f.es are. h- wever. «hMv-retit annua." !rom 

those dep:« ted in the I cviva'i • erernorj-.a!*. atid the rcsemb'anee between 

the masks is not verv p!asn, and the author is «ari'l.d em>ugh li» say that 

there arc differences that are a u,..st f.ttal !«• the theorv He g«*e» on t * 

speak of the '"plumed ^crpe'.t « u/ as ; rt . al i.g among the Hop: viJage*. 

and refers to the sic. !ar;*v between the legends • ! the Arte* war god 

Huit/ih»po< hch and r'.e II p: war .:-*«! I'u u-kon ho ya. Another <.>n<.« 



HOOK KKVIKW.s. V»\ 

dciio- is tnmul in the spider woman and the A/tci goddess, who represents 
the legend ot the earth mother impregnated by the sun through a drop of 
water, .1 very natural *tory. This effort to tra» e connei turn between the 
Ho|.ih atid the Nahuan is cnuunendahle, and the hope is that the author 
will f it!i!iii<ie until more definite irsemhlanccs are discovered. 

//.«• /'./ .':# tu k.*n ft. I'»y I. Walter I cukes and A. M. Stephen. 

Mr Waller 1 ewkts is » otitrthutmg to the different journal some very 
.ntcrc^tmg artu les upon the • cremoniaK of the Tusayan people, and kmdretl 
t'ipw ->. g:>;ng the results of tiie Hemingway expedition t« > the public in this 
wa\. In the ceremony described in this pamphlet, *un symbols and ser- 
pent etngtes figure conspicuously. ( )nc part of this < crcmony is peculiar 
In f lis*, nineteen men took the seven serpent effigies and carried them to a 
ptwi! and laid them down at the edge of the water, and am<>;.g other cere- 
monies dipped the tip of the serpents' heads into the pool, and afterward 
« arncd the effigies hai k to the kiva and protected the heads of the serpents 
through the screen, on which were sun symbols, thus showing that the water 
cult, the serpent cult and the solar cult were all combined in the M««|in or 
rusavan religion, very much as it was in the ancient Mound builder's, 
though the ceremonies were different and their significance somewhat unlike. 

J he A".*//, t- < ti/t'Ht/ttr <•/"( tn/r,t/ America ,///•/ A/e.n* <». Hy I), (J. Bnuton, 
MP. Philadelphia American Philosophical Societv. iScjj. 

The origin of the calendar ami the cardinal points in America is a problem 
whu h has not yet l>een solved. Dr. I). <i. l»nnt«»n has here described the 
« a'.endar in use among the Nahuas and the Mayas, and has traced the 
origin of it to the ancient builders of the ruined cities of Copan and I'alempie. 
The trills which |>osscssed this calendar belong to seven linguistic stocks, 
but to one great geographical area the area (Krcupicd by the civili/cd races. 
No traces of this calendar have been found outside of this area. The date 
of its origin is unknown, though the <>uichc astronomers had been keeping 
their annals by this time measurement at least 800 years before the discovery. 
The month of twenty days, each day numbered and named from some object, 
1* the hrst tlung to be noticed. The names have already been given. They 
are as follows (I) sword hsh or crocodile (2) wind or air, (31 night or 
house, 'i' h/ard or iguana. <;• serpent, (61 death or skull, ijt deer, <8i rabbit, 
0,1 water. • 101 dog, 1 1 1 1 monkey, f !2j broom, 1" 1 )) recti or corn-stalk, 1 141 tiger, 
• i;i eagle, ii'o vulture or owl. (171 strength. U8» Hint knife, «igi thunder- 
storm. «joi flower. The months of the Maya calendar were eighteen in 
number, which would make yo days, leaving five days uncounted. There 
was also a division of the year by thirteens, which is supi>osed to l>c the 
sacred year, thirteen da\s being counted out of the twenty. There was also 
a seven da\ period. I>r. 1 o.stcman thinks that the solar year was divided 
into four groups of ^e\en weeks each, each week l>emg the original one of 
thirteen days t • i.V- 7 V»|i. Kach ol these groups of seven was assigned 
to a partn ul.tr < animal point. This division corresponds with the one 
which existed among the /unis. the number 7 having come from the 
division of the earth into m\ parts, with the middle division making seven, 
and the number 1 \ having come from adding the 6 houses of the sky to 
those of the earth. The analogy is still more striking when we consider 
that the feasts and dances of the /unis came in succession, following the 
cardinal (Mints, tcrtain seasons being given to the gods of the sky and eel- 



1:M THE AMKKICAN ANTUjlAKUN. 

elirated l»y « ertam • lans who * art nil thf fetit lies "t these mnl». thr w.u 
comment m^ with thr fea-t* t«* thr tfods of tin- ni»rth and hdiiij; .iImhii t«« the 
left, making a division whn h re*eml»!es the i:rniip> of works mt«» -(".in 
weeks .1 ii< i thirtci n i!.iyv The A.tct « v< It w.i" made up of ;_» year-, ar 
ranged in I -• r u - • •{ i * ea» h. It i> n>>m<aMe .i!«ii that the m day month 
was divided mt<> I shmtrr periods of ; dav* eat h, whn h were called vear 
hearers. Ih'h we !ia\r .1 k*rr.it variety of divisions of the vrar.<menl ;*.i 
days, iimiIi- up • ■{ i> month- ««t .'.) •lay* e.u h; our of ;U) «la\ <•, made up nt 
i ^rotipH of "»rrk\ui|i Ml iliftit I ; 'lax*. a No the *a* ted vear of vm} 
ti.i y^, made up »f M months >>f i \ davs ea< h. llesides this the Mayas had 
lutkv and tin] -u ky day, and inaiiv other division* whn h are t ontiismi;. 

Dr. limit in ha- Kiven the lmoiM:< view, ami has s f » translated the wonts 
or n.unes of the •liticrent days a* to show- that there was not only a syn. 
UiIjc hut also a hieratu si^mfuam e to them. 

This hiciatn sn:uitu ant e ««f the Mava taiendar is very remarkahle. t>e 

cause it < orrespomls so i Itnely with the M^nimarn e of the Mida soti^s of 

the < Mihwas, the purport of whnh was tlt.it the person who was initiated 

passed through the v.ifn»in>u^c» of human experience and finally ended 

his t rooked path in tlie circular lod^e. where hi- soul was at rest, passing 
through the various stages ol the Medawm mysteries. The son^* may he 
tailed the iourne\ tit the m»u!, s<ih e the symho] of i reation was at the 
t>e£iiitiinK and the |»n ture ot heaven at the end. 

There was a m\stit potent \ m the numlicrv j t rcatmns, i\ modes ot 
activity, JO stages , if human hie. as tnere was anions the « Mihwas a m\st:i 

IK>tencv m the nuinher \. four parts ••( tin- • irt le, four stages of imtiatioi.. 
our side* tn ea< h i m|^c. four divinities to i/uard the cntrv of the lod^e. 

Tht- talendar was tisetl for divination lien- as in tht 1 ,»M. I he kev to 
thr ant tent talcfidars is to h« found m astrology, tlie ilay on whnh 
one was horn having an clfe« t «>n the future. I he davs of the month 
also served as a calendar in whnh feasts were « elchrated. (hi one da\ 
( hcv sat nfn ed to the divinities ot the tiral. another to the ^ml nt the hills. 
antithcr t« • the de« eased ancestors, and another to the *nti!*nf tht dt-p.irttd 

H\i< . Imrrt. .1 /V /iV./ tr. 'w I* % lyn* <M Uv 1 1 • • r .t 1 1 - • Male. U« r'.n II •* 

Hermann. iS-^j. 

The i1imuss;i>u of this Mihjct t has !ed In a review o! ti.i pa ::phiet wh:i h 

was puhh-hctl m |S^>. I>r. \\.\\r takes the negative side, has :.„• \\-.% ..pir,;,.n 

upt»n a stutty of language In tlie first part of the pan>pi.!ft h< dwell- 

u|»on the similarity >! the IriNjuois and < herokees pronouns, and then turns 
to a i oinparisnii tit the pr«»in<un- of ail the iancuaites i.f •> e w>st i>>a-t •»? 
Anient a, and s.iys there :s :.o resend»Ian» e l»etwt ei. a:.\ "uc * t them a: *\ 
those <-f the I'tiU iifsian I-land^. thon^dj he .n kri'-gk !r<!^es that t'ere is .in 
element of rediipln ati«-n :n several •■! the lan^ua^es. th«- N.i.'ui.i 1'iiiia. and 
s.ihaptiari. Tlr* redip :« alum, howrv er. is seei: in the lapanese and tr.«- 
hushiiH n tif ^o'ith Atm a lie s»i\s that Amer.i a was -mdtr.htrdlv pei*ple<! 
.••ii^ heforr I'i-'.v i.es.a. I he • le.ii tra«hti<>ns <»t the i»laridtT-« and the v\ 
dett« e <>t I l.f: r 'an^' j.u'e *h"W that 'diev rea« lictl the r pre»e.'.! aJ-*|cfr« ::. 
^Miutheasterri A*ia :r: nnnii rn 1 1 riic- -. .i:.«! that \\ v easti n.:!."*' ,:n»'ips 
ha\e heen [»enpii d w :l.:n the I !.r.«t:an ifi the s.milw ih Ulanls weir 
sett'.* •! aiMii.* tw •• i enlur i s « ari;er t'.ar. I« eland. He hases h.s oi»:'.i<ir. . ;» ;. 
M. • 'u.itreta.:* s * Hn'im.es } ».s^!.<<. et Homines I an^.M^rs Ih.s n; i:. . •. 

nt ««{s rev s ntf, f.-r thi re are tl;-« .iver e* ir. a!! !h« .s.and- wh.i !i ■ art* !*-.*■ 
dales farther K.iik and i:d t ate a * it « e*s:un «-t rates, the !an K *i.j»je •»! tf r 
later ra- « - ?■« .r»U \er\ •! tterent Jror:. that of the earl% rat r< ainl the :i «-n-. 
mes.ts d.Cer.i .; !ro::'. ut.c aifther. No one « an \ t* perlv sa\ that wr htw 
reat hed the t :.d • ! di«in\er\. It mav he th.at tlie • i-n:.ei in,; hnk* w-'.; !-r 
li-und *h'»' w . s^.i.w the .de-.f.tv <>t tht dt>!ir.en h*.: "ders nt lapan. « f let-. 
.it.d !h« pi '.in d •■!!. ders ••! i c: t'al America with :hi-*c 4»t Fastrrr: As. a 



Tim 




,JVntiqu<i 



mcrxom ^£XnT\Qi\<\xmn. 



Vm. XVI. May, 1894. No. 3. 

MIGRATIONS OF THE ALGONKINS. 
By C. Staniland Wakr. 

The traditions of the North American Indians, as to their 
migrations from one part o( the continent to another — move- 
ments which appear to have been universal and almost constant 
in some part or other of the country, are usually so slight as to 
be of little value in themselves, although a comparison of them 
mav sometimes lead to valuable results. The Algonkins, who 
fbrmerlv occupied the greater part ol the United States east of 
the Mississippi, and who were the red men of the early Euro- 
pean settlers, form one of the few exceptions to that rule. Sev- 
eral of their traditions giving considerable detail have been 
preserved. Of the two most important, one is the well-known 
story of a migration from beyond the River of Fish, identified 
by I lecke welder with the river Mississippi, and the other is that 
preserved in the Walam Olum or Lenape "Red Score," which 
was obtained by Mr. Rafinesque, and has been only within the 
last few years properly translated. Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, to 
whom we are indebted for this translation and for other import- 
ant works relating to native history, appears to regard these 
two traditions as independent, and to look upon that of the 
Walam Olum as the earlier. He says, in his work on "The 
Lenape and their Legends," after referring to the story given 
by Heckewelder and the return of the Delawares at the close of 
the last century to their "ancient seats" on the White river, in 
Indiana, that, although these facts point to a migration in pre- 
historic limes from the west towards the east, there are indica- 
tions of a vet elder movement from the northeast westward and 
northwara to the upper Mississippi valley. In support of this 
view Dr. Brinton refers to the tact that the western Algonkin 
tribes, the Kickapoos, Sacs, Foxes, Ottawas and Pottawatomie*, 
located their original home north of the river St. Lawrence. 



128 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

near or below where the city of Montreal now stands. This is 
one of the minor Algonkin traditions, and probably it retains a 
knowledge of the home of the particular tribes to which it re- 
lates while they were yet one nation. On the other hand, the 
Mohegans had a story that their ancestors came out of the north- 
west. To this and to minor traditions of the Delaware*, Nanti- 
cokes and Shawnees reference must be made, however, after 
the chief traditions have been considered. 

The Lenape, or Algonkin, tradition given by Heckewelder # 
relates that many hundred years ago the Lenape resided in 
a very distant country in the western part of the American con- 
tinent. For some reason not explained they determined on 
migrating to the eastward, and accordingly set out together in 
a body. Alter a very long journey and many nights' encamp- 
mentst by the way, they at length arrived on the Namcesi Sipu, 
or River of Fish. 1 lere they tell in with the Mengwe, the name 
given bv the lenape to the Iroquois, who had likewise emigrated 
from a distant country and had struck upon the river somewhat 
higher up. The spies which the Lenape had sent forward lor 
the purpose ot reconnoitering, had long before discovered that 
the country east ot the river was inhabited by a very powerful 
nation, who had many large towns built on th** great rivers 
flowing through the land. This people called themselves Tal- 
ligen or Talligewi. Among other things told of them that they 
were remarkably tall and stout, that some of them were giants, 
being much lari»cr in size than any ol the Lenape. When the 
Lenape arrived on the banks of the river thev sent a message 
to the Talligewi requesting permission to settle in their neigh- 
borhood. This was refused, but the Lenape obtained leave to 
pass through the country and seek a settlement further to the 
eastward. They accordingly began to cross the river \%hen 
the Talligewi seeing that the numbers were very great, consist- 
ing of many thousands, made a furious attack on those who had 
crossed, threatening them all with destruction it they persisted 
in crossing. The I^enapes suffered great losses, and not K-ing 
prepared tor a conflict were convinced that the enemy was too 
powerful for them. The Mengwe, who had hitherto been spec- 
tators at a distance, now offered to join them on condition that 
after conquering the country it should be divided between them. 
The offer was accepted and the resolution taken by the two 
nations to conquer or die. Having thus united their forces the 
Lenape and Mengwe declared war against the Talligewi and 
great battles were fought, in which many warriors tell on both 
sides. The enemy fortified there large towns and erected forti- 
fications, especially on large rivers and near lakes, which were 
successively attacked and sometimes stormed bv the allies. An 

•H.»i is. Mai-.rirr* -»u>! <"u»t>iu« ••! the Ionian Nation* <i*-*S Ed i. p. «- ft jf 

• tinker lit «U!« « xi.jkt *. \ '* n|M » cts.Autpnrat l% :ii*-aat the hail of a %ra» at *hw 



MIGRATIONS OF THE ALGONKIN8. 1» 

engagement took place in which hundreds fell, who were after- 
wards buried together in holes or laid together in heaps and 
covered over with earth. No quarter was given, so that at last 
the Talligewi, finding that their destruction was inevitable if 
they persisted in their obstinacy, abandoned their country to the 
conquerors and fled down the river and never returned. The 
war lasted many years, during which the Lenape lost many o( 
their warriors, as the Mengwe hung back and left the fighting 
to them. The conquerors divided the country between them, 
the Mengwe making choice of the lands in the vicinity of the 
great lakes and tributary streams, while the Lenape took pos- 
session of the country to the south. For a long period of time, 
some say many hundreds of years, the nations lived peaceably 
in this country and increased very fast. The most enterprising 
hunters and warriors crossed the great swamps or glades, that 
is, says Heckewelder, crossed the mountains and pressed on 
until they reached Chesapeake Bay, afterwards making their 
way to the Delaware River, and finally to the Hudson River. 
They thought this country was destined for them by the Great 
Spirit and they gradually emigrated there, settling on the four 
great rivers, the Delaware, the Hudson, the Susquehannah, the 
Potomac. The tradition said, however, that many of the nation 
remained behind in order to aid and assist the great body of the 
people which had not crossed the Nameesi Sipu, but had 
retreated into the interior of the country on the other side on 
hearing the reception those who crossed the river had received, 
and probably thinking they had all been killed. The nation 
finally became divided into three separate bodies. The largest 
body, which they supposed to have been one-halt the whole, set- 
tled on the Atlantic, and of the other half the stronger body 
remained beyond the Nameesi Sipu, the remainder being on the 
east side of the river. The Lenape who settled on the Atlantic 
afterwards became divided into three tribes, the Turtle, the Tur- 
key and the Wolf The Wolf tribe, known as Afcnsi % lived at 
the hack of the two othvrs and formed a kind of bulwark for 
their protection and keeping watch on the Mengwe. Other 
tribe* were formed from them, and the .1 lohiccani (Mohicans), 
who became a detached people by intermarriage, mixing two 
dialects together and forming a dialect of" their own, crossed the 
Hudson River and spread over all the country forming the pres- 
ent eastern states. They still continued, however, like the other 
tribes, to call the Delawares "grandfather." Meanwhile the 
Mengwe had increased in number and spread from the great 
lakes along the River St. Lawrence, so that they became neigh- 
bors on the north side of the Lenape. They afterwards began 
to endeavor to weaken the Lenape by creating quarrels between 
the different tribes, clandestinely killing people. Once they 
murdered some Cherokees and left a Lenape club near the 
dead, and this led to a most bloody war between the Lenape 



ISO THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and Cherokees. The treachery of the Mengwe was at length 
discovered and the Lenape determined to take an exemplary 
revenge by extirpating the whole of the deceitful race. The 
Mengwe were also known to eat human flesh, to kill men for 
the purpose of devouring them;* and the Lenape therefore con- 
sidered them as not rational beings, "but as a mixture of the 
human and brute kinds." War was carried on between them, 
leading to the lormation of the Mengwe confederacy of the Five 
Nations, against which the Lenape claimed to have been suc- 
cessful until the arrival of the French in Canada, when the 
Mengwe, fearing they would be crushed between two enemies, 
induced the Lenape by leceit to accept the position of 
•• women w or 4 * peace makers." 

Turning now to the Walam Olum, we read, according to Dr. 
Brinton's reconstruction of the ancient history of the lenape 
there given, that at some remote period their ancestors dwelt 
far to the northeast, on tide water, probably at Labrador. Thev 
journeyed south and west until they reached a broad water, full 
of islands «<nd abounding in fish, perhaps the St. Lawrence, 
about the Thousand Isles. They crossed and dwelt for home 
generations in the pine and hemlock regions of New York; 
fighting more or less with the Snake people and the Talega, 
agricultural nations, living in stationary villages to the southeast 
of them, in the area of Ohio and Indiana. Thev drove out the 
former, but the latter remained on the upper Ohio and its 
branches. The lenape, now settled on the streams in Indiana, 
wished to remove to the east to join the Mohegans and others 
of their kin, who had moved there directlv from New York. 
They therefore united with the Hurons (Talawatansi to drive 
out the Talages (Tsalaki, Cherokees) from the upper Ohio. 
This they only succeeded in accomplishing finallv in the historic 
period. But they did leave the road and reachrd the I K-la wan- 
valley, though never forgetting nor giving up their claims to the 
western territories.* 

As already mentioned, I)r Brinton regards this tradition as 
older than that preserved by Hecke welder, and sees a confirma- 
tion of it in the tradition of the western Algonkins that their 
common ancestors lived north of the St. Lawrence, near the 
site of Montreal. It appears to be confirmed by the reference 
to the Hurons, a nation with whom the Lenapes were always 
friendly, the former being, in fact, at the head ol the Algonkin 
confederacy against the eastern Iroquois, who settled in New 
York State from beyond the St. Lawrence. Moreover, the 
Hurons claimed the country between lake Erie and the river 
Ohio, and their right was never disputed except by the eastern 
Iroquois. £ According to the tradition of ihis people, their an- 

• I •■ • r) *frf* *!•;>•- .4 1* t t t.r - r*i w ' .a ?• ! *e» Hr* «r«c 1- r p 4 

• I t < 1 «-iul »• ii ! *» i i I 'iriit' t | 
:<.4 iln \' h \ \ . \ j ||. j. •», 



MIGRATIONS OF THK ALGONKINS. 1S1 

cestors lived north of the St. Lawrence, in much the tame 
locality as the western Algonkms claimed to have left, that is, 
near the site of Montreal. The late Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, in 
his "League of the Iroquois," relates the tradition which says, 
that "prior to the occupation of New York, the Iroquois resided 
in the vicinity of Montreal, upon the northern bank of the St. 
Lawrence, where thev lived in subjection to the Adirondacks, a 
branch of the Algonkin race, then in possession of the whole 
country north of that river. At that time the Iroauois were 
but one nation, and few in number. From the Adirondacks 
they learned the art of husbandry, and while associated with 
them, they became inured to the hardship of the chase. After 
they hsd multiplied in numbers and improved in experience 
they made an attempt to secure the independent possession of 
the country they occupied, but having been in the struggle 
overpowered and vanquished by the Adirondacks, they were 
compelled to retire from the country to escape extermination." 
The Iroquois ascended the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario as far 
as the Oswego river, by which they entered the central parts 
ot what is now New York State, where they afterwards be- 
came the five or six nations of history. Probably the Huron- 
Iroquois were already established on the peninsula formed by 
Lake Huron to the west and Lakes Ontario and Erie to the 
east. It is deserving of notice that neither this tradition nor 
those of the Lenape given above make any reference to prior 
settlers in the country south of the St. Lawrence, and probably 
the Algonkins and the Iroquois were its first inhabitants. 
There is so much similarity between the two Lenape traditions 
that, notwithstanding Dr. ftrinton's opinion to the contrary and 
certain differences of detail, I am inclined to consider them as 
referring to the same events. This can be shown only by a 
more particular examination of the contents of the Walam Olum 
and a comparison of its statements with the tradition of Hecke- 
welder. According to the former, the primitive abode of the 
Lenape was in the frozen north, but where there were many 
deer and manv butlaloes, which would probably answer better 
to the northwest than to the northeast, as supposed by Dr. 
Brinton. When the migration commenced, induced perhaps by 
an unprecedented severity of the climate,* their footsteps were 
directed towards the east — "to the Snake-land to the last they 
went forth." The men of the Bald Eagle clan, from the north, 
and those of the White Wolf clan, from the south, who dwelt 
along the sea, rich in fish and mussels, with the men of the 
Beaver clan, go forth willingly; but the men of the Turtle cJan,+ 
who were the best of the I^enape and lived at the west, come 
with hesitation,'* as they did not wish to leave their ancient 

•Swrh a% « "A A t > \\*\e p-trt!) lr«l !-» the- j!>jti<toami-nt of ( tfrvnlatu! \\\ thr N >rthmrrt. 

+ l*rot*jl>:t tt.r M ■.' -v-iW*. •h.**.- I urt-r > '.An li*t lhr«t> «1.\i«.«»n», ait<1 who l*-» arm- trpj- 
fAtr-1 ffirii <t<r it* ■ i \ rfofik'Uv *i . <r-t.l4t t» Mr> kr*el<ici * lra«i.t . >ll. through inttf 
UlMIHAgr 



132 THK AMERICAN' ANTIQUARIAN 

home. To reach Snake-land they had to cross the frozen sea, 
the great tidal sea, the mussel-bearing sea, evidently the same 
sea as that on the border of which the Eagle and Wolf clans 
had remained, and therefore not the St. Lawrence. Thev first 
reached the land of spruce pines, where "to the east was fish- 
land, towards the lakes was buffalo- land/ 1 while in the pine 
country the Lenape would seem to have been near Snake-land 
and under their tilth head chief, the Seizer, they made war on 
its inhabitants and all were killed, "the robbers, the snakes, the 
evil men, the stone men." The l^enape possessed the country, 
and dwelt in peace under ten successive chiefs, but then there was 
much warfare south and east, and afterwards some of the people, 
being angry at trie interference of their chief, went oil secretlv 
to the east. After a succession of twenty more chiefs, there was 
again war with the Snakes, probably another tribe of the people 
whom the Lenape are said to have destroyed many years pre- 
viously. These Snakes would seem to have lived to the south 
of the I^napc, as a little before ihe Walam Olum says there 
was war north and south, and atterwards that the chief *'Slrong- 
goc#d, once fought against the Northerners." This was followed 
by war with the Tawa people.* The constant lighting appears 
to have disheartened the Lvnape, and by the advice ot their 
chief, •'Opomemlrke," they determined to go 4, to the east, to the 
sunrise." Some ot them, **thr lazv ones," however, decided to 
remain, and they separated at the Nemassippi or Fish fiver, 
where the chief part of the nation had continued to have their 
headquarters. 

Vp to this period there is little in common between the two 
legends, but if we take the Nemassipi to Ik: the same a* the 
Nameesi >ipu, which Heckeweldcr translates the River ot Fish, 
they here come together. There are, however, some earlier 
points of agreement. \r. both traditions the first joutne\mgis 
towards the east. The (.welling in the land of spruce pine* ami 
the country of the snake* answers to the *' many night* encamp- 
ments" ol the other legend, and it appears from He* kewelder** 
tradition that a body ot the Lenape remained near the Kiver ot 
Fish after the tongues: ot the Talligewi to aid those ot their 
nation who continued on the west of the river, in like manner as 
according to the Walam Olum, the "lazy ones'* remained near 
the Fish River. The country to the east was, according to |x»th 
traditions, occupied by the Talligewi or Cherokee*, and the 
I^n.ipe in neither case inuld o\en ome thi* people without 
assistance from the Ir<Hjw<<;-, in the «»ne tradition culled -1/t' «;»"»*, 
the umj.iI Algonkin name tor that people, and in the other /•#/■ 
amatitu, the Lenape name ti»r the Huron*. The Talligewi atv 
defeated and ail «»t them g«» south, the Lenape taking possession 
of the iountr\ to '.he soirh ot tiit- Like*, and the Hurons that to 



MIGRATIONS OF THE ALGOSKINS. 188 

the north, according to the Walam Olum ; while the other tradi- 
tion says that the Mengwe chose the lands in the vicinity of the 
great lakes and their subsidiary streams, and the Lena pes took 
possession of the country to the south. These statements may 
really mean the same thing, as the Huron country was north of 
the lakes, and the traditions of the Eastern Iroquois fixed their 
original seat on the River Ottawa. 

The great body of the Lenape remained in the country of the 
Talligewi for a considerable period according to Heckewelder, 
and it is evident that this is supposed also by the Walam Olum. 
It is true that •' many departed, the Nanticokes and the Shaw* 
nees going to the south?' which agrees with the tradition referred 
to by Gallatin,* which says that the Shawnees migrated from 
Ohio to the south and settled for a time among the Creeks, 
although it places them first in Pennsylvania. The chief, called 
44 the Seer," went to the west, to the southwest and to the west- 
ern villages, showing the evidence of Lenape settlements in that 
direction. The Walam Olum describes another period ot much 
war " with the Tawa people, the Stone peoplef and the northern 
people." This was probably the cause of the further migration 
that was made to the east, and it was brought about in the same 
manner according to both traditions. Heckewelder says that 
the most entei prising hunters crossed the great swamps or 
mountain glades and pressed on until they reached Chesapeake 
Bay; while in the Walam Olum it is said, " Look-about went to 
the Talega mountains (that is, the Alleghany mountains); East 
Villager went east of Talega; a great and wide land was the 
east land, a land without snakes, a rich and pleasant land. 
Then, "all the hunters made wampum again on the great sea. 
So, in Hecke welder's story we read that the Lenape considered 
the eastern country destined for them by the Great Spirit, and 
they emigrated there, at first in small bodies, finally settling on 
the four great rivers, the Delaware, the Hudson, the Susque- 
hannah and the Potomac. As we have seen, however, many of 
the Lenape remained behind to be near their brethren in the 
west. There are still other points of agreement between the 
two traditions. The Walam Olum says, "Good Fighter was 
chief and went to the north; the Mengwe, the Lywnes, all trem- 
bled." Heckewelder's tradition states that when the Lenape 
settled on the Atlantic they divided inlo three tribes, and that 
the Wolf tribe, or Minsi, lived at the back of the two others and 
formed a bulwark for them, keeping watch on the Mengwe. 
This people managed, however, to embroil the Lenape in a 

•\r * \n. .'.,- 

♦I»r lit nt it i:.. •.! n% tl.«- !.f u.i t cM-lrtii c ot the A 'ttfumaik. i»r "St»»ne' people." A 
I>ak>ta ti.N i« < a '.c<l A'*tnth*m, ->r St >n* lr<ii«n«. from their cu*t.»n» of tx>i]tng !••>»! bj 
mnn» -•! h-.t »i .nr« • Kef Sm%th Iff . i*7*>. I*t. :.. p. 121. » Thr A«»!nit»iint arc referred 
to »>> flu krt K.«t».< r I a< .»n>lx- a* hating l»ceti expelled bv the Aln>mkin Crer* from a por- 
ti«»© of tr,f . .iuntr% ttrtwrrn the Red Kuer and tli<* K<»< ky Mountains, ((Quoted l»v Mr 
Horatio Halt 11 ti • Amrruan Anti juanam. Vol c, p. m » 






134 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

bloody war with the Cherokees, and in the Walam Olum it is 
said, " Well-Praised fought in the land of the Talega and 
Koweta." This was alter the appearance of white men on the 
Eastern Sea, and Hecke welder's story ends soon after the arrival 
of the French in Canada. 

The agreement between the tradition preserved by Hecke- 
welder and that of the Walam Olum is almost perfect after the 
departure from the Fish River, and by the identification of the 
Nameesi Sipu of the former with the River St. Li wren ce instead 
of the Mississippi, the other portions of the tradition could be made 
consistent. Dr. Brinton identifies the frozen ocean crossed by 
the Lenape at the early stage of their migration with the St. 
Lawrence about the Thousand Isles, but it was more probably 
the lower part of Hudson's Bay. This was on the route from 
the northwest to the southeast, which the Lenape appear 
10 have taken. In that case the region of spruce pines may 
have been north rather than south of the St. Lawrence, a locali- 
zation which would perhaps agree better with the statement 
that the "east was the fish land, toward the lakes was the buffalo 
Kind;*' although there is no reason why the Lenape should not 
have crossed the river and gradually settled in New York state, 
which Dr. Brinton identifies with the country of spruce pines. 
The episode of the war with the Snakes, which is known only 
to the Walam Olum, is located by him south ol the St. Law- 
rence, and the Lenape in following the retreating Snakes would 
find their way into the region to the southwest where the pines 
appear in the other tradition alter crossing the Nameesi Sipu; 
for which reason perhaps Hecke welder supposed it to be the 
Mississippi. After reaching this point the two traditions are 
practically the same. 

Another account, which is not inconsistent with that of the 
Walam Olum, is given by the Indian Cusick of the great war. 
He states that the northern nations who formed a confederacy 
possessed the bank ot the great lakes, where there- were many 
beavers, and that their hunters were often opposed by big 
snakes. He then refers to the existence ot a great empire in the 
southern part of the North American continent, who built many 
forts and almost penetrated to the Krie. He adds that the peo- 
ple of the north, feeling that they would soon be deprived ot the 
country to the south ot the lakes, attacked the foreigners and 
after a bloody war lasting about a hundred years conquered 
them and destroyed their towns and forts. He ascribes their 
success to their use ol bows and arrows and their greater endur- 
ance of hardships. Subsequently discord broke out among the 
northern nations, who fought and destroyed each other. 

We have seen that, according to the Walam Olum, the Lenape 
fought in the land of the "Talega and Koweta w so late as the 
historical period. There appears to be no doubt that the Talega, 



MIGRATIONS OF THE ALGOMKIN& 1S6 

or Tallegewi, were Cherokee*.* The remembrance of this 
nation having once lived in the Ohio valley was kept alive by a 
Cherokee tradition, which was repeated annually in public by 
their official orators at the festival of the green corn dance. The 
Cherokees claimed to have been the constructors of the Grave 
Creek and other earthworks there. Dr. Brinton thinks this was 
about the fourteenth century, and he states that "they were 
driven southwards by their warlike neighbours, locating their 
council fire first near Monticello,Va., and their main body reach- 
ing East Tennessee about the close of the fifteenth century. As 
late as 1730 some of them continued to live east of the AUegha- 
nies 9 while, on the other hand, it is evident from the proper names 
preserved by the chroniclers of DeSoto's expedition (1542) that 
at that period others held the mountains of North Georgia. To 
the Dela wares they remained Kit-tawa-wi, inhabitants of the 
great wilderness of Southern Ohio and Kentucky." In 1768, 
alter the close of the French-Indian war, the Cherokees *• sought 
and effected a renewal of their peaceful relations with the Dela- 
ware*, and in 1779 they sent a deputation of 4 condolence* to 
their * grandfather \ the Lenape, on the death of the head chief 
White Eyes."+ The Cherokees must formerly have occupied 
the country as high north as Lake Erie, for Hecke welder refers 
to fortifications built by them about twenty miles east of Detroit 
and others on the Huron River, six or eight miles from Lake 
Erie. Outside of the fortifications his native guide pointed out 
a number of large mounds where were said to be buried hun- 
dreds of the Talligewi, who were slain in fights spoken of by 
the tradition. 

The WaLtm Olum states that the Lenape encountered the 
Snakes before they react ed the Tallegewi, but says they were 
"weak and hid themselves in the swamps." Dr. Brinton remarks 
that the Tallike (Cherokee) are not mentioned in the Walam 
Olum as the Mound-Builders, and that "the inference either is 
that the Snake people, Akowini or Akottaft^ dwelt in the valleys 
north of the Ohio river, in the corner of western Ohio and Indi- 
ana, where the most important earthworks are found, and singu- 
larly enough none more remarkable than the immense effigy of 
the serpent in Adams County, which winds its gigantic coil 
over seven hundred feet in length on the summit of a bold bluff 
overlooking Rru«h Creek * Who, then, were the Sn.ike people? 

• If. -« 1 -!•« t<i 1 . the ••pin. m ■ •! Mr H-trat.o Hale, although har»Jl\ c >n-:*trnt with hi* 
\- n la* 1. • 1. it I! «■ ..inguajfe ••( the ( her *kri- oat. >tx ;* .it gram mat ma ni> 1 1 ur- >n lri*|uoi* 
f.tm.-r ,-f fi.'i / . \ . 1, ; j. i|.,, ft -i-f 1 unlr**. in«lcc«i, the latter tr-.hr* m-tr lhr.u««ri»M 
*:«-•! t t'.i lair*;* I he • nrintt t.ou U twrrn the I he rule re* ami Iroi|ui»;« * C'tinnnr*i b> 
Mi. \ "* «»at%. trt. tJ;r iliM.n* u.the-l I ngw.M «•! the American Bureau nl Kthn ilng\ 'i> thr 
•ri «ti-J » .i.m 1* .-( !,■« .mp.irtanl w^rk hen-alter referred t«», an«i *e may per hap* regard J tlic 
In*! 1 . » a* !«-». en !ai;t- ■•( < hr-r^tee* »rn» h*>l tna>!e their «av acrii*,* the >t. I.awieme. 
am] «!• • |<r >t<ah \ \r. a:i\c mixetj w.th the Ai|E'*nkin* of that region. 

♦ I lr I map* an 1 tr.eir !e£cn>1s y. ir. /•'- ''•/.. <»a!l»tui mention* that the De'attarr* 
«.*!>•! the < t.er .»er« " untie. .It, h Am .i.yi If the re!ati«m«h*|> iietwe^n the Irmiuml 
*n«l tr>< i hrr.iker^ !■«• e*JahI,«i t~1. the farmer mat ha\r l»een i h« f.«»ee« »h" rrai heel the 
nmntiv ri'irth ..f the M l.«wr< n. e, ether a* -ett;er* «»r a* pn*unei» l>* the \:grnk:it*. who 
•Uea>1i '*rt »ip r,l r 

?Op ..'.. p j:. 



13« THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The French traveler, Lallarpe, in 1721, saw three villages of 
Dakoias, Quat'a or Arkansas tribe, who are supposed to have 
formerlv lived in Ohio, on the Mississippi, and he noticed snake 
worship among them.* There is no occasion, however, to cross 
the Mississippi in search ot the Snake people. They must have 
lived near the Tolega, although not of the same nation, proba- 
bly in the lowlands, while the Tolega occupied the highlands, 
and it' we follow the Tolega to the south we shall find a Snake 
tribe living in a country which, there is reason to believe, once 
belonged to the Cherokees. The chief, Well-Raised, is said to 
have fought in the land of "the Tolega and the Koweta," and it 
we can establish the identity of the Koweta it may lead us to 
a knowledge of the Snakes. According to Mr. Gatschct, 
•'Koweta*' is the Yuchi term lor Indian,* but he refers to a Kasi- 
lita legend of their migration with the Koweta and the Chicosos, 
from beyond the Mississippi river, and by "Koweta" here ap- 
pears to be meant the Cieeks. The old traveler, Wm. Bartram, 
visited a Creek town ot this name. He afterwards visited a 
Creek town at Altasse or Ottassee, and he describes the pillars 
and walls of the houses forming the central square there as 
••decorated with various paintings and sculptures * * • as 
men in a variety ot attitudes, some hideous enough, others hav- 
ing the head ot some kind ot animal, an those ol a duck, turkev, 
bear, fox, buck, etc., and again those kind ot creatures are repre- 
sented having the Iriman head." Bartram adcN, M the pillars 
supporting the front or piaz/.i of the council house ot the square 
are ingeniously formed in the likeness ol vast speckled serpents 
ascending upwards, the Ottosies being ot the Snake lamilv or 
tribe. "J Here, then, the Snakes and Koweta aie connected with 
the Creeks, and therefore **bv the land ot the Tolega and the 
Koweta," we 1n.1v prohahlv understand the land ot the Cherokees 
and the Creeks, h i* evident Irom Bartram'* account that the 
former people .it one time occupied most ot the southern coun- 
try afterwards in possession of the Creeks and we mav suppose 
that as the Cherokees advanced to the north thev were toiiowed, 
if indeed they had not N*en also preceded hv the Creeks, in 
whom we mav see the Snake people found in possession ol 
part ol Ohio and Indiana when the Lenape crossed the River 
St. Lawrence. It is true that neither the Creeks nor the Cher- 
okees, according to Bartram's statement, had any knowledge ot 
the builders ol the mounds on which their building* stood He 
savs, in lact, that •' the Cherokees have a tradition, common 
with other nations ot Indians, that thev found them (the mounds; 
in much the same condition as they now appear when their lore- 

• \ M t -- i" -. I . „•■ r . ; . ■ li . \ * » ■ *r n •• , ! : j 

•I'M J i - 

;lr..u v; - •• 
!l *'.. . 1 1 «■ ■ ' ••*■ 4 ' •...-!,••■•■ «» 1 |- ;■: net. 1 ! I « I" % » i<t • •: . 

• iui' *.*" ur% m- '. • '. 1 »■ '.lie . ■ ■ V » »m. 14- « «» * : • ■ Hi ! % I'r ! n. t;- . !*i» 
air *»i ■ it. 1 » r l! *l ■• ■ 1 ■ "i • . j ; ■• 1 4 ■■ 1 ■ 'clhf \tl.O !-■ U. j "» * I •*». !•* 
ff't S I'* *»f.tn" *■ 1 » .!*n:.t'f *. \ it. It?- ( fc*»» 



MIGRATIONS OF THE AUSONKINH. 137 

father* arrived from the west and possessed themselves ol the 
country alter vanquishing the nations of red men wno then inhab- 
ited it," who themselves found these mounds when they took pos- 
session of the country, the former possessors delivered the same 
story concerning them." And yet Bartram shows that the 
mounds and the terraces and the enclosures which were near 
them were used by the tribes who then occupied the country. 
If they were not erected, therefore, by the ancestors of the Cher- 
okees thev must be referred to a people of similar habits and 
probably belonging to the same stock. Although the Wulam 
Olum does not describe the Talega (Cherokees) as mound- 
builders they are said to dwell in strong towns, and the picto- 
graphs referring to them represent circular mounds such as the 
traveler mentions as being used all over the country and "dif- 
fering from the ancient fortifications or entrenched camps" 
found in other parts of the United States; which, however, the 
Cherokees (Talligewi) are said by Heckewelder's tradition to 
have erected when their country was invaded by the Lenape. 

In adopting Mr. Horatio Hale's conclusion* that the course 
of Indian migration has been from the Atlantic coast westward 
and southward Dr. Brinton remarks, "we know that both Chip- 
pcways and Crees have been steadily pressing westwatd since 
the country was first explored, driving before them the Black- 
feet and IJakotas." He gives reasons for believing the Cree 
language to be the nearest representative we possess of the 
primitive Algonkin language, and, he adds, "unless strong 
grounds to the contrary are advanced it is proper to assume 
that the purest dialect is found nearest the primitive home of the 
stock." On the other hand the language of the Blackfeet, who 
with the Cheyenne form the most western branch of the Algon- 
kins, having been driven bv the Sioux first across the Mississippi 
and at a later date across the Missouri,* is the most corrupt and 
altered of the Algonkin dialects. It seems to me, however, that 
these facts are capable of a difierent interpretation. The Crees 
live beyond Lake Superior and extend to a considerable distance 
to the northwest of Lake Winnipeg, "towards and even through 
a good part of the Rocky Mountains."* Such being the case, 
the Algonkin- Lenape tradition of their western origin is con- 
sistent with the Crees representing the primitive stock from 
which thev issued. 

This again is not inconsistent with the original seat of that 
stock having been west of Hudson's Bay, where, as pointed out 
by Gallatin, the Algonkins have given name to the river Missi- 

'ItiliOi »»!'<•*■ ■»•■ •*•■ «■*•.'!• iki" i t>\ lauguagt . In/ .\mtn % an \n!i./ujn+tn. Vo! i. I***. 
tAV/ >mitH In ' i*-., |M is. |i M 

tlMt». pit'* I ' - »tat« rncnt :iu.-t \* rra 1 subject t«» the fa» t mentioned bv I he* Re*, 
hither I a< .mt»c «ij>. •!« -1 h) Mr ll.»r»ti» Hair ;i» I hf American { nti./manan. Vol. *. p nt* 
thai \h\% .* 'HM :n re«»M t:mr» that thr Ore* ha%e found thnr «ir«o( of the Kit! Kitt-r. 
Such Irtni the ra»*- t! « r or.g.n woul-l I** fr-«:u the north rather than wc»t, that i«. north- 
— — t of \jkVr **ap* r-..r. 



138 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

nipi. This conclusion agrees with the curious story related by 
the French traveler, Du Pratz, of the journey beyond the Rocky 
Monntains, to the northwest coast, undertaken by a southern 
Indian in search of the ancestral home of the Red Men of the 
north, and which is accepted as genuine by the French anthro- 
pologist, M. de Quatrefagcs.* Nor is that conclusion inconsis- 
tent with the tradition of the Shawnees, referred to by Dr. 
Brinton, as confirming the northeastern origin ascribed by him 
to the Lenapc. According to that tradition, the Shawnees, at 
some indefinite remote past, "had arrived at the mainland after 
crossing a wide water. Their ancestors succeeded in this by 
their great control of magic arts, their occult power enabling 
them to walk on the water as if it had been land." This legend 
is said to have been repeated annually, and a yearly sacrifice 
offered up in memory of their safe arrival.f This would hardly 
be required by a passage across the St. I^awrence, and the ac- 
count evidently refers to such an incident as that related in the 
Walam Olum, of crossing a frozen sea. The migration myth of 
the Mohegans may refer to the same event. It states that "their 
early forefathers came out of the northt»c$t % forsaking a tide- 
water country, and crossing over a great watery tract, called 
Akhkok-pek, 'Snake-water, or water where snakes are abound- 
ing.' They crossed many streams, but none in which the water 
ebbed and flowed, until they reached the Hudson. This, they 
said one to another, is like the tidal ocean of our nativity. 
Therefore they agreed to kindle a fire there and hang a kettle, 
whereof they and their children after them might dip out their 
daily refreshments.'^ 

A tradition of the Delawares, first heard by Kuropeans in 1767, 
stated that 370 years previously they migrated from a kingdom 
far to the west, which they left owing to warfare between the two 
sons of a deceased monarch. It adds that only nine tenths of 
the people migrated eastward, the remaining tenth being left on 
the other side of the river. Dr. Brinton, after referring to this 
story and stating that the Nanticokcs had a tradition of the same 
nature, says "a curioiiN addition to the story is mentioned by 
Loskiel. The number of the mythical ancestors of their race 
who thus were left on the shore of the great water was snm. 
This at once recalls the seven caves (Chicon<>ztoc) or primitive 
stripes of the Mexican tribes, the seven clans ivuk amog) of the 
Cikchiqucls. the seven ancestors of the Ouechuas, etc., and 
strongly intimates that there must be some common national 
occurrence to give rise to this wide-spread legend.'" These 
traditions throw no li^ht on the date when the ancestors of the 
race quitted their primitive home, hut possiMy tt may fix it at 

•I It 11 .-1 l'i *l- « ■ I .- 
♦ I ■ • I «-n *i- *n ! 1? r i I • i*> !. * ; 1 
tlMt ■ |. 1 i- 
1 1 tt ■ |i ■ :• «. 



MIGRATIONS OF THE ALUONKINS. 13© 

the time of the migration of the Algonkins eastward, in the year 
, 397- The reference to the seven mythical ancestors may per- 
haps point to their connection with the Dakotan tribes more 
directly than with the Mexican stock. A comparison of the 
totems of the Algonkins and Dakotas confirms such a connection, 
and as a fact the Sioux and Dakota proper are divided into seven 
sub-tribes and call themselves Ochante Shahonne, or "Seven 
Fires." The allied Crow Indians claim to be the original inhab- 
itants of the whole Rocky Mountain range, and the position of 
the Athabascans and the Crces renders it probable that the 
Algonkins originated in the far northwest, near the same range, 
and gradually spread east to the great inland sea of Hudson's 
Bay. From the language of the Walam Olum, we may infer 
that a faction of the western people did not join in the migration, 
but that otherwise it was general in a southeasterly direction, 
across the southern end of Hudson's Bay to the St. Lawrence, 
not far from the Great Lakes. It is remarkable that not only 
docs the migration legend of the Tinneh of British North America 
point to their having come from a region of extreme cold, but 
the legends of the Maya-Quiche speak of their four ancestors, 
before they journeyed to the Seven Caves, being at a place where 
it was very cold and where their god is said to have given them 
fire/ 

•lUiu eft 'N.ii^t Kjm\"\»; III. p 4'«. »cjj 



141) THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



THE SALMON WIFE— A KWAKIUTL LEGEND. 

By Gardner C. Tfall. 

They were all seated around the fire that cold night, each 
with his blanket drawn closely abogt him, for the wind found its 
way through every chink in the house. Although the fire of 
pine-knots blazed courageously, it was cold — bitterly cold. These 
men squatted around the fire were Indians, and this their native 
home in British Columbia. The sea before their door was not 
frozen; it was too rough. The firs behind the house moaned 
and sighed; the poles before creaked and groaned. A storm 
raged fearfully. Within all was silent. Then might have been 
heard the weird, monotonous chant of the Storm song; but it 
soon blended with its very echo. 

Now spoke Ouahu-Skaga. the village medicine-man, saying: 
" My children, do you know why there is sorrow in this world? 
If you have not heard my tale, listen: 

A long, long time ago— even before the time of our fore- 
fathers — there lived a great and mighty chief He was the 
greatest of the great. None have been as he In those days 
everything was good, and he was best. It was he who brought 
the fire from the skies, and kept it tight in a great copper chest. 
Now th.it bird whit h ue call the Crow was verv anxious to obtain 
pnssessinn ol this fire, and as the (ire.it Chief guarded it closely 
it seemed next to impossible to steal it. Ilowcvrr, by his cun- 
ning, the ('row did manage to get |>ossession of some ot the fire. 
This he earned in his mouth to his home, an-i returned to cairv 
oft the remainder But tin- (row was caught in the act by the 
(treat Chief, who shut him up in a house u herein a piUh fire was 
burning The < ireat ("hiel stopped up all the* rai ks in the house 
with mud. so that none <>t the deiw pitch smoke could esi aj>c. 
So it was that the Ciow — until then sjHrtlessly white — became as 
black as the night. How it was that the Crow escaped we have 
never tnrcn told, but this he did, and the Great Chief was not able 
to catch him again. From that time until this there has l»een 
much wickedness in the world. I>amscum, as the crow was 
henceforward calied, became every iLiy more wicked. From his 
examples all evils have sprung. Not long after the csca;>c of 
Damscum. he and the Cormorant became fast friends. They 
were together much of the time, but the Cormorant revealed a 
great many of Damscum's secrets, and as he was getting to be 
very powerful, Damscum thought of a plan whereby he could 



THE 8ALM0N WIFE. Ml 

rid himself of the now troublesome Cormorant, and at the same 
time prevent the Cormortant from further revealing his secrets. 
So, one day, he called the Cormorant to him, saying, 'Friend, 
show me thy tongue.' The Cormorant did as he was bidden and 
ran his tongue out. Thereupon Damscum bit it oil and said to 
him, 'Go thou quickly from my sight, O hated one. Nevermore 
shall a cormorant have a tongue whereby to tell his master's 
business.' Not long after the Cormorant had gone away Damscum 
went to the Tree- Gum and said, 'Gum, come thou, go with me 
and be my friend.' After several times refusing, the Gum at last 
consented to the arrangement, and thus he became Damscum's 
second companion. Hut this friendship, like that with the Cor- 
morant, was of short duration. The jealous Damscum now 
accused the Gum of playing him false, and he stuck the Gum 
on a fir-tree, before which he had placed some of the fire that he 
had stolen. Seating himself near by, Damscum cried out 'Gum!' 
and the Gum answered 'What?' The Crow rcj>eated his cry 
several times, ami as often the Gum answered 'What ?' At last 
the fire became so hot that the Gum could not speak, for he was 
melting Damscum was overjoyed when he perceived this, and 
as he was walking away he called back saying, 'Gum, from now 
<>n canst thou tell no tales, but thou shalt drip, and drip, and 
drip.' As you will have seen, Damscum proved to be a rather 
treacherous com]»anion, but the next time he took a servant 
instead of taking a companion along with him, for, said he. 'I 
cannot trust. Who goes with me must serve both me and mine.' 
He did not put much trust in the Jackdaw, but he chose him 
for his servant. He did not fear him though, for he had revealed 
to him no secrets and the Jackdaw was as a slave. 

During one of his restless wanderings, Damscum met and fell 
m love with a beautiful girl. He thought her to be a daughter 
of his old enemy, the Great Chief. Nevertheless, he resolved to 
marry her, for, thought he, 'If the Old Chief dies, I, having mar- 
ried his daughter, shall inherit his greatness and power." Not 
long after this Damscum and the maiden were married. Now, 
although the supposed daughter of the Great Chief had married 
Damscum, she really loved his servant, the Jackdaw. One day, 
while JXimscum was absent, and she had been talking to the 
Jackdaw, she put her finger first in her mouth, and then in a tub 
of water standing by. The Jackdaw looked into the water and 
was surprised to find that a new fish was swimming therein. 
This he named a Salmon. The Jackdaw and the wife then took 
the fish from the water, cleaned, and as was their custom, ate it 
raw. When they were done eating they gathered up all the 
bones, as they thought, and threw them into the sea. These 
bones formed themselves into another Salmon. Soon, how- 
ever, the fish came to the top of the water to get a gill-bone 
which, in their hurry, they had dropped on the floor of the hut 



142 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Just as the wife had thrown the missing bone to the fish Dam scum 
approached. Going up to his wife he said to her, 'Laugh/ and 
as she laughed, Damscum caught sight of particles offish stick- 
ing to her teeth, and he instantly knew what she had been doing. 
After much persuasion Damscum got his wife to make a number 
of Salmon for himself. These he dried, to make them pink, and 
hung th**m up on long poles in his house for future use. One 
day as he was passing under the poles, his long hair became 
entangled with the suspended fish. This made Damscum very 
angry and he threw the fish into the sea. These became trans- 
formed into live fish and swam quickly away. Now this fit of 
anger in Damscum made the Jackdaw laugh, and Damscum was 
so angered thereby that he killed his servant on the spot. The 
wife, who was standing by, felt so bad when she saw that the 
one she loved had been killed, that she jumped into the sea and. 
turning into a fish — for she was really the Salmon Queen — swam 
away. She was never heard of again, but is probably living in 
the sea to this day. That is all" 

"Is it true?" asked one. 

*'I have said it." answered QuahuSkaga. 




FEMALE STATUE FROM COPAN 




BACK OF FEMALE STATUE. 



CULTURE HEROES AND DEIFIED KINGS. 143 



CULTl RK HEROES AND DEIFIED KINGS. 

By Stephen D. I'eet. 

One of the most interesting subjects conn< cted with American 
arch.rology is the one which relates to "Culture Heroes and 
Deified Kings." Much has been said about the M Heroes." and 
many theories have been adopted to account for their origin and 
history, but as to the kings little has been written, for there 
seems to be but little known. That there were different classes 
of divinities which were worshiped by the native races will be 
acknowledged. Some of them were the personifications of 
nature powers; others semi-historic human divinities; still 
others actual historic characters or potentates. It remains, 
however, for the architologists to identify these, and make known 
the localities where they were worshiped. This is the task which 
we have set before us in this paper. We shall first take the tes- 
timony of the historians and see what they say in reference to 
the "Culture Heroes." We shall next take the testimony of the 
monuments, and from them endeavor to trace the relation of the 
"Culture Heroes" to the "nature powers." lastly, we shall 
speak of the various statues and images, which have perpetuated 
the record of the "Deified Kings." In all of these departments 
we shall seek aid from the study of the myths and symbols. 
Our object will be to distinguish between the three classes of 
symbols, those which represent the " nature powers," those 
which relate to the "Culture Heroes," and those which show that 
royalty was represented. There may be a difficulty about sepa- 
rating the first two classes, for the nature powers were often per- 
sonified, and the element of personality was hidden behind the 
symbols; but this is not the case with the third class, for the 
portraits and decorations of the kings are apparent. We shall 
give attention especially to the symbols of the Mayas, for it is 
among them that the statues of deified kings are to be found; 
but we shall also take the symbols of the other civilized race 
so-called, such as the Nahuas, by way of comparison. Our 
chief inquriy will be whether the "Culture Heroes" of these 
races can be identified by their monuments. 

I. First let us take the testimony of history. 

I. The two nations, the Nahuas and Mayas, were for a long 
time associated together, and borrowed from one another customs 
and habits, even symbols and mythologies, though the Mayas 
were much the older, and their culture was really more advanced. 



144 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Their history may be divided into several epochs or periods, the 
first period }>eing that of the Maya supremacy, which began 
before the Christian era. Bancroft says, "It is not likely that 
the Maya empire in its integrity continued later than the fourth 
century, though the epoch of its highest power preceded, rather 
than followed, the Christian era." The second was the Toltec 
|>eriod winch cuiiimenced about 647 A. I).; the third, the Chiccmcc. 
commenced with the twelfth century, and the fourth was the 
A/tec peiiod. commencing l \d$ A. 1>. It was during the Toltec 
period th.it that mysterious person, called ( Hiet /at lcoatl, appeared 
and introduced the various arts of civilization, and an elaborate 
system ol religion. He was the great "Culture Hero" of the Na- 
huas, antl the pontiff king of Tulan. He effected many religious 
innovations ami was distinguished for his opposition to human 
sacrifice. Temples to his honor were erected at (holula and in 
.ill p.irts of Anahuac. Hi-, reign was a short one. He retired 
before the machinations of hi- enemy, Tczcathpoca. Who he 
was and where he came from is altogether unknown, yet such 
was his character th.U he impressed hmwlf, not only upon the 
Toltecs and the Xahuas, but also upon the entire Maya race, for 
there are several culture heroes mentioned in the history of all 
the tribes nf Mexico ,i\u\ I'entr.il America, though under the 
different names nf Vutan, I'uculkan, <im umat/. and Ouct/atl- 
outl Some writers have explained this fact by advancing the 
theory that they were only personifications nf the gre.it sun 
divinity, and have t ompared them to the various culture heroes 
which have appeared in the early history nt all nations 
Ouet/ath oat! is represented by the A/tec historians as a white 
man. wearing .1 beard ami enveloped m a garment covered with 
crosses, and resembling .in Kuropean monk or priest. Some 
have ain 'tinted tor him by the supposition that two personages 
have been confounded, one the early "culture hero." m\ entirely 
mythical charai t« r. another the pontiff kin:; of Tulan, who 
assumed dominion about X7;. His reign in Cholula lasted 
about ten years. Others have imagin> d that some visiter from 
a foreign shore had appeared and introduced great reformations, 
and this ga\e rise to the traditions. 

(Juetzatitoat! was the great divinity of the Toltec s tl nd repre- 
sented the more gentle and humane religious tendencies which 
prevailed among them, and uhuh were supplanted by the cruel 
anil warlike reiiginii ol the A/te« s. He was the feathered sc ip 
or serpen! h-.rd. We recognize in his name, and in the legends 
concerning him. the g'**\ of the wind or a;r. uhrch u,i« known in 
Central America under the varying names <•( luiulkan ibird 
serpenti, Murals. m . hurricane , (iucumat/ 1 leathered serpent*, 
\'otan serpent :. He was always a serpent, either feathered or 
flying - He reminds us ,.( the beneficent g-»ds i»t the ancient 



CULTURE 1IKROE8 AND DEIFIED KINGS. 145 

world, Dios or Jupiter Pluvius, of the Greeks; Ormuzd,* of the 
Persians; Varuna, of the Hindoos; Tien, of China, who were 
embodiments of good. 

In the Maya traditions the person whose name appears first 
is Zamna, a son of the chief deity, who taught the people the 
hieroglyphic alphabet and gave a name to each locality of Yucu- 
tan. He played the same role here that Votan did in Chiapas. 
The same events are recorded in the Yucatcc, Tzendal, Quiche 
and the Toltcc traditions. According to a Maya tradition, this 
culture hero came to America and apportioned the land to the 
people. He came by sea from the cast. He built a great city, 
the city ot the serpents, and became a law-giver and civilizcr, the 
introducer of the Maya culture, and after his appearance was 
worshiped as a god. 

Votan was also a divinity among the Mayas. He corresponded 
in his history to Quetzatlcoatl of the Mexicans. Bancroft makes 
him the first historian of his people. He wrote a book on the 
origin of the race, though at times he seems to be a mythic 
creation, a sort of mediator between man and God, and at times 
a sort of legislator. He portioned out the land. He founded 
Palcnquc, the future metropolis of a mighty kingdom. He was 
supposed to be the founder of civilization. He came by sea 
from the east. He made four mysterious visits. Still he was not 
the first to appear, for American civilization was already in ex- 
istence. After his death he was deified, and may be regarded as 
one of the deified kings. It was in the days of this ancient 
Maya glory, when Votan and his successors reigned, that the 
kings played roles, to a great extent mythical, combining the 
powers of legislators, teachers, high priests and monarchs. Then 
came a famous personage, bearing a striking resemblance in his 
traditionary career to the Quetzatlcoatl of the Nahuas, called 
Cuculkan, whom, some think, was an historical personage, and 
others imagine to be only a personification of the sun or some 
of the nature powers.t 

There were two distinct cycles of myths in Yucatan. The 
earlier related to Itzamna, the later referred to Cuculkan. It was 
a tradition among the natives that the most ancient emigration 
was from the east across the ocean, the later was from the west. 
The former was called the great arrival, the other the less arrival. 
Itzamna was the guide, instructor and civilizcr. He was the first 
priest, and taught them the proper rites to please their gods. He 
invented the characters or letters with which the Mayas wrote 
their numerous books. He devised their calendar. As city- 
builder and king, his history is associated with the noble edifices 
of Itxamal.t There was a temple at Itzamal consecrated to him 
as the eye of the day, the bird of fire, Kin-Uh-kak-mo — Kin. the 



1-ockyer'* Dawn uf Attrononi). pace 6. 

t Bancroft. Vol It. y . r>U. 

SCharmay speak* ol hading a gigantic lace at the foot of the pyramid at lUamaj. 



Uti THK AMKKH'AS ANTIQrAKIAN. 

sun; /«■//, the eye; kak\ fire; mo % sacred bird, the brilliant 
plumagcd guacamaya. the red macay. This was the wort! 
adopted as the name of the ruler of Chichen-Itza. Some have 
derived the name ltzamna from .rant, early; n////, first; Ztimalyatn, 
the dawn, the aurora, the dew, the son of the morning. The 
symbol which represented this divinity and culture hero was 
the sun's di^k, which shot forth its scorching rays.* There was 
a temple sacred to him, to which the jxrople resorted, and at high 
noon spread a sacrifice upon the altar. The moment the sun 
reached the zenith, a bird of brilliant plumage, which was noth- 
ing Uss than a fiery flame, shot fiom the sun, descended and 
consumed the offering in tlv sight of all. tlis shrine was ex« 
tremely popular, and to it pilgrimages were made Iroiii such 
remote regions as Tabasco, ( i interna la and Chiapas. Four paved 
roads were constructed to this shrine, from the north, south, east 
and west, straight to the quarters of the four winds.* Associated 
with It/amna were the four Hacahs, or gods of the winds, each 
identified with a particular color and the i ardinal points ; the first, 
that of the south, yellow, the east, red. the north, white ; and 
the west, black. The winds and rains from these directions were 
under the charge of these gods. 

Hishnp I~inda says thev represented f >ur brother*, who sup- 
ported the four corners of the heavens, who blew the winds from 
the four cardinal points, and presided over the four dominical 
signs of the calendar. Ivach year in the calendar was supposed 
to be under the influence of one of these brothers. Thev were 
the sons of Ich-chal, the goddess ot the rain bow. who was the 
wife of the light god and mother ot the rain gods, since the 
rainbow is never seen but during a shower, and while the sun is 
shining. The^e four divinities were called "\ hacs," giants. They 
were gods of fertility, they watered the crops; they preside*! 
over streams and wells; thev were divinities whose might was 
manifested in the thunder They were represented .is enormous 
giants, standing like pillars at the four cornels of the earth, and 
supj mh ting the hea\ens. They were worshiped under the symbol 
of the cross, the tour arms of whiih represented the four car- 
dinal points. This w.is regaided as a tree, anil in the Ma\.i 
tongue was called the "tree of life " The celebrated cross at 
Talent) ue! «* ■ »ne of its representations There was another such 
cross in a temple on the island of Co/umal This was a s»mb^»l 
of the four rain gods, the Haiahs. In periods of drought, offer- 
ings were made to it of birds, and it was sprinkled with water. 
The festival to thr gods of the harvest occurred in the early 
spring In this festival ltzamna was worshiped as the leader of the 
Hic.tbs. and an imi*»rtant nte called the "extinction of the fire " 

•1 '.' *.* • ■ r • •» •! » ■ • . - • ■ • ' i !.• *: I' . > i t ' i- i N « ■ • ■ : :. 

I* r t ■ • < .- i N J ■■-•■■• * • *:, 1 f ■ ■ I ^«4 * . !• c I 1 ■-«- ! *' r» « •- • \ 
•« !i ' • '. ■ 4- » • \ ! i • !-■:*: ' ".I » 1 • * i I ill 14 .."'I i » . ; -m 

:*»■* I .!■ jf ?' ■ ' » f i' I'a ':..-■ 



CULTURE HKROKS AND DKIF1ED KINGS. 147 

was performed.* The ttacabs were supposed to blow the winds 
from the four corners of the earth through wind instruments or 
trumpets t It was in the .second period of the Mayas that Cu- 
culkan appeared, and was the culture hero. This period was later 
than that of Itzamna, though its date is unknown and the sym- 
bols were different. The natives affirm that there were twenty 
men, the chief of whom was Cuculkan, that they wore long 
robes and sandals on their feet, had long beards, and their heads 
were bare. Cuculkan was the tutelar divinity of Yucatan, as 
Yotan was of Chiapas, and Quetzatlcoatl was of Cholula. His 
name means "feather serpent," the "mighty serpcnt."J He was 
worshiped in Chichcn-Itza, a city whose ruins still rank among 
the most imposing in Central America A temple was built in 
his honcr. It was unlike others in Yucatan. It had circular 
walls, and tour doors, which were directed toward the four cardi- 
nal points, with a staircase guarded by serpents. Under the 
beneficent rule of Cuculkan the nation enjoyed its halcyon days. 
At length the time drew near for him to depart; he gathered the 
chiefs together and expounded to them his laws, then took his 
journey westward toward the setting sun. The people believe 
that he ascended to the heavens, and from his lofty house he 
watches over the interests of his adherents. Such was the tra- 
dition of the mythical hero as told by the Itzas. Previous to the 
destruction of Mayapan, temples were built to him, and he was 
worshiped throughout the land. The version of the tradition 
about Cuculkan makes him arrive from the west and return to 
the west, while that concerning Itzamna and Quetzatlcoatl was 
that they came from the east and returned to the cast. With this 
exception the chief divinity and "culture hero" of the Mayas and 
Nahuas seem to have been very similar. There is another point 
in which they resemble one another, they all prophecied their 
return. These prophecies were obscure, but they distinctly re- 
fer to the arrival of white and bearded strangers from the east, 
who should control the land and alter the prevailing religion. 
These prophecies gave rise to the general expectation, so that 
the Spaniards were surprised to find themselves welcomed as the 
divinities whose advent had been foretold. 

The culture hero of the Peruvians was like those of the Mayas 
and Nahuas with one exception, he seemed to have been 
at the outset worshiped as a supreme being. § Vira Cocha 
was the name of this "culture hero," and divinity. ii He was 
the first cause and ground of all things. He made the sun, 
formed the moon, and gave her light; he created the beautiful 
aurora, the dawn goddess; the twilight, whose messengers were 

•lit nt .n • lino \l\th*. See description on page iu*. 

t The Mandate «a> tiul fnur tortoise* t«>m;t out the rains; the Na\a)<>et that lour •want 
drained the earth the K.i hr-t that lour animal* brought the magic. 

!>ee rUocr.ift • Ant. quit. r*. page aju, and Natite rlaces. Vol. Ill, page V$. 
fctec Br-.nt-m « <» -1* ••( the Kiche?. ai*n Nat;«e Mythi. 
Mtlht of the New Wor.d 



148 THE AMKRICAN ANTIQUAKIAN. 

the fleecy clouds, who, when she shakes her clustering hair, drops 
noiselessly pearls of dew on the green grassy fields. Invisible 
himself, the rays of light were his messengers, faithful soldiers, 
"shining ones," who conveyed his decrees to every part. I Ie was 
worshiped as a creator. He was not the sun, but was the creator 
of the sun, the incarnation of the infinite creator. The legend 
is, that two brothers started from the distant east, and journeyed 
to the west, and gave names to the places as they passed. They 
reached the western ocean, and having accomplished all they had 
to do in this world, they ascended into heaven Still there is a 
myth that Vira Cocha was human. At a remote |>eri<»d he ap- 
peared to the tribes .is an elderly man, with white hair and flowing 
beard, supporting himself on a stall and clothed in flowing robes. 
He met the same late as other wise teachers. According to 
another myth, he had a host of attendants, white and bearded 
liko himself. When they reached the sea, they walked out upon 
the waves and disappeared in the west. His name means "foam 
of the sea." Dr. Bnnton thinks that this story is founded upon 
the personification of th* sun, the god of light and of wind. The 
Peruvians expected the return of Vir.i Cocha, so that the Span* 
iards found themselves, expected guests in the realms of the Incas 
as well as in Yucatan. Thvre were "culture heroes" among the 
other races of South America. In the lofty plateau of the Andes, 
in New (iranada, w.is the home ot the Muyscas.who were skilled 
in smelting and l>cating the previous metals, and were fond of 
agriculture They attributed their various arts to the- instruc- 
tions o! a wi*c stranger, who came from 'he east, and whose 
path led to the holy 'emple at Sogoniosn. His hau was ibund- 
ant, his beard fell to his waist, and he w.isdre»s(d in 'ong flawing 
robes. At night he retired into a c.wc in th«- mo-mtam. and 
again re ippeared in th*- morning. H;s name was ( 'miii /..ipagua. 
Another name applied to the hero god w.i> It<nhic.t He is 
represented as the supreme male divinity, wiiosi- !• male a^o. iat'* 
is tlie rainbow, the goddess of rains .md w .iters, a nd teitiity, 
fields and child-bearing Then- weie cu'ture h-r^* s aWo m 
Brazil and even in I'aiaguav. one ot which was named Tamil or 
/time, iaiif d our ancestor, whom the natixes rt gardt d as a ik-ii 
evoient old man, to whom they attributed the:r arts. He came 
from the east, the sun rising, and went toward* the east The 
impress ot his fret w. is ielt upon the rock, and .1 well marked 
path was pointed out here as the path of H »eh:c 1 111 New < iranada. 

The interpretation of these \ arums imths given by Dr. 1> <i 
Knnton is that thev were all based upon the per*. >nin\at;on of 
the sun or the god ot light, mho- tin most of them came from 
the cast, though he does n<*t c\p! uu why they went bat k to the 

• I !■» , ! n 'ft ■ l*» M M J - ■ ^1 * ■« 4 1 "' ■ u*4> »? *\ '.-TAffl ) f 1 

■ * 1 *■ ' ».i- J 1 1 t t ■»«;»•!■ t ■ ' M ■' ■■ ! . 4\ » ii'i *•. S ;s u m . ■ a 1 I ; q 
■„!. in l.'.r !.j « ! M (.'•"- ' ».*•!■ 1 «,rr it !i 1. M *u : : «x.rf*. t. I 



Cl'LTUKE UK ROES AND DKIPIED KISUS. 149 

cast. The strange thing about these heroes is that they all 
have beards and wear long robes, which are sometimes covered 
with crosses. They were evidently prehistoric in their appearance, 
and were worshi|ied as divinities; and yet when we come to 
identify them in the monuments, we find very human figures 
which have either beards or robes covered with crosses.* 

II. This leads us to the study of the monuments. Do these 
anywhere furnish testimony as to the "Culture Heroes," so that 
we cm identify them and fix upon the localities where they were 
worshiped ? This is an important question, for by the answer 
we may not only decide as to the difference between the myths 
and the traditions, but verify history. In taking the testimony 
of the monuments, we shall consult those authors who have 
viMteil them, and made a study of them, among whom Mi. J. I,. 
Stephens is regarded as chief. This gentleman, in 1840, started 
with his companion, Mr Cat her wood, from New York for Nica- 
ragua. The two were fortunate enough to strike upon the very 
localities where the chief cities of the ancient Mavas were situ- 
ated. somr of which had l>een seen by the Spaniards, but the 
majority of them were totally unknown to the conquerors. They 
were Mirpnsed at the extent and magnificence of the ruins, but 
were able to visit manv of them, and take sketches of the chief 
building* anil statues and works of art, and to write out descrip- 
tions ot the same. The ruins were scattered over a wide region 
ot country, some of them in Honduras ((Juirigua, Copam, 
others in Guatemala v (Juiche, Quezaltenagot, others in Chi- 
apas lOiosingo. Palenque). others in Yucatan il'xmal, Chichen- 
It/a. Merida. Kabah), all of them bearing the marks of 
ancient Mava civilization. The publication of their work made 
a great sen situ m, a\m\ was for the science of archaeology nearly 
,b important an event as the discovery of America was for his- 
tory. A few explorers had. to be sure, visited the region before, t 
and still others lollowed; but the work of Stephens is the most 
valuable of all. Bancroft says. "The accuracy of his survey 
rann«>t be called in question.*' It was, with great difficulty that 
the overhanging forest trees were cleared away, anil the lines 
were run out which secured the platting of the various ruins and 
the location «»f the pyramids, palaces, temples and altars, with 
relation to one another, but it was owing to these measurements 
that wi- learn th»- length, breadth and height of the various pyra- 
mids, the s-/e oi the shrines upon them; also the height and 



1 hi TI1K AMKKICAN ANrUjlAKIAN. 

breadth of the termers which formed the platforms to the palaces, 
tlir size and location of the different rooms in the palaces, their 
courts and corridors; also the length of the walls surrounding 
the palaces; the si/.e of the carved pillars and gigantic faces and 
sculptured altars which surrounded the pyramids; also the length 
and breadth of the tablets confined within the shrines or adora- 
torios. From these we determine the character of the different 
buili lings, and decide which were tie voted to purposes of royalty, 
whuh were used for religious objects, and even decide as to the 
use of the different apartment** in each of the buildings. The 
description of Mr. Stephens reveals to us the beauty of the 
sculpture and the magnificence of the architecture, as well as 
the grandeur of the ruins. It is, however, owing to the 
ski.lful hand of the artist, Catherwood, that we are furnished 
with drawings which bring out in detail all the ornaments whuh 
weie wrought into the facades of the palaces and of the shrine-, 
and even the sculptured figures or |M>rtraits embodied in the stat- 
ues, and .ne able to study the symbols and hieroglyphics which 
aptx-ar «»n them in great number-. The plates in the book aie 
anion;* the chief sources of authortv aw\ information on these 
subjects and well repay examination The-e gentlemen found 
the most interesting - -Meets at t'ojun " The ruins here were two 
miles in extent and sretned to repie-mt a palace with couit-yard-. 
and buildings around the court-, situated i:p> >n term ed pyramids. 

with wide steps liadm.'to tin- hmahiu's. colossal heads upon the 

i ■ * ■ 

sides n\ the pyramids, and. what i* most interesting of all. nine- 
teen statues io\'f-red with the most elaborate si ulpturcd nina- 
nients, and contain;!)-.; the figures wlmh may have been the 
portrait- <>l the kin;.;- and ipieen- wli ■ iiai;;i:'i! the palace 
There were altars covered with nio-t elaborate -ymh 'I- near 
seven ot thi sr statues. i«nvcv:ng the :di a th.it -acr.f:crs may 
have he» n < 11- red to the king* 1\v -C- pt ire upon s* "Mi:- *•! 
the statues fiiled the ti.ive.ers w.th astoni-hmrilt. for :t was verv 

• 

beautiful and elaborate, a-* i.ni be s*i n from .in e\ upniat >n ot 
the plate- and the i lit- < _ , uiri-. v '..i. abo:;t !weuti ni:>s distant, 
present' ■! i!s.».i i •■lie. tmsi n! >!»!i,"n ni the ^aine -,;i iut.i! ehar- 
.!• ter as thos- -.it i iipin.bu! - -rn* w h it l.tr .;■ i . t!:ey wef-iarvcd 
pillars, with I: ; ;r-.s ■ fi t!.- !:-.nt and bit k. and h> iro^;lp« hie* 
on the m des. si.iise •■• :'w ui twenty -thrr ■■ !• et above li.r ground. 
W itii a hi'i- pr ■ •: i !::.,; • !te«-n ■ r - \». -:\ :_••■: .\t < »a,, ii«- th-'ie was 
,111 • xtens \r f-irtre*- -urm .n '■ ■: w '.\\ ■ .1 . ne-. a palace air! a 
pin ■• o» s.n r • . e. ba! '•> -Titu - we: v - ile Th» pine o| 
s.n::fu' wi- .!■■ 1- .1'.' *\ pv r iur !. br ■.•■11 1:1! r . ned. :> .t was 
supp '-ed *■■ b .in 1 '. i? cv • V d ' ■•: Mr i t .'. ■■ - •? I* ■.;•:■. m vi. !:(!»- * 
At I'.i ■ n ■■, rf the ni'..! . \!- ■: - . ■■ : . ■■ *. m »-! o* :h." build- 



•l 

• " t 



• I 




^mm f 




BEARDED KINO AT COPAN 




BUSIED STATUE AT COPAN 



en/rum: hkroks and dkifikd kin«js im 

ings facing the cardinal points; there were palaces with corridors 
and courts and sculptured groups in the courts, also a shrine, 
with a sculptured tablet in the shrine. Near by, were various 
temples or shrines which contained the tablets and were named 
after the tablets : the temple of the cross, the temple of the sun, 
the temple of the three tablets. These shrines or adoratorios 
presented on their facades many remarkable figures in bas-relief, 
some of which evidently represented divinities, or the priests 
which presided. At Ocosingo, in Chiapas, was a terraced hill or 
elevation, and on the summit a pyramid which supported a stone 
building eleven by eighteen feet. Over the doorway, on the out- 
side, was the stucco ornament which resembled the winged 
globe of the Hgyptian temples,* At Uxmal was the most inter- 
esting group of ruins. Here was the buildinp known as the gover- 
nor's h«»use. or Casa de la Gobcrnador; a pyramid rising in three 
terraces, the sides measuring five hundred and forty-five feet and 
leaching the height of forty teet. It supports a building three 
hundred and twenty-two feet long, thirty-nine feet wide and 
twenty-six feet high, with two rows of corridors, and heavy 
cornices, and above the cornice, beautiful sculpture. Here was 
the two-headed idol and the picot + also the Casa de I'alomas, 
also the Casa de la Viega or old woman's house, so named from 
a statue lying near its front ; also the Casa de Monjas. or Nunnery, 
with its tour interior facades, fronting the court, with the cornice. 
which covered over twenty-four thousand square feet for the four 
buildings, filled with elegant and elaborate sculpture. This 
building was remarkable for its symbolism. Over the doorways 
uf the southern court were the ornaments which resembled a 
small hut or shrine, with a statue seated within the door, and 
above the shrine was the ornament resembling the human face 
and eye; lattice work and ranges of pillars on either side. J On 
the eastern court were horizontal bars terminating in serpents' 
heads, on which hung a gigantic mask or human face with 
peculiar head-dress, car pendants and protruding tongue. $ On 
t!ie western court was the serpent temple, a building whose 
f.ii t uir was covered with lattice work, ornaments in the shape of 
the dicek tret and two massive servients in relief, which formed 
the panels, their bodies interlacing and surrounding the entire 
front, the t.ui ar.d head at either end of the building with a 
human lace within the jaws. At Chichcn-Itza were the numerous 
buil- i in ;s which were called the ''castle." the approach to which 
wa- guarded bv the scr|>cnt balustrade, also the "gymnasium" 
w;th it^ -t'«m- rings in the shaj>c of serpents; also the buildings 
in w i. ■- h were the figures sculptured in bas-relief, representing 

•. « .'■•». ■(•-■•;.: <• 1 I* at an tKr Ui a>l«- at I'j>n-j..c. Sit patfc i " 

.!■ »■ i. '. it P M »cr. ji.j i-l ;ti •.).,• f-ntrr 1 tin* |> 4.'i t t!.r | j.i r *\ 

I" i ■!-. 1 ...- * wf-ti' '4'tincl t ■ t I ■ Ik- Ji;ii.»J r 1 

*. \ ■ f •■ :..! ■ nr i j. I r ■. t ii ii ■«"■•! i»c:! u*:* »» 1 K.. nr i * .t.r v ' ji.i^r l .*. 

H.1I1 l.i!t - \llt >| ..t.r«.. (>Jfii' !*'• 



»r«- • • 



1VJ TIIK AMKKU'AN AXTIQUAHIAN. 

the human form with plumed head-dress and bunches of hows 
and arrows; the building called the "red house," called by Char- 
nay the "prison ;" and the circular building called the "caracul" 
or winding staircase, by Norman the "dome," which contained 
the stairways with balustrade formed of two intertwined serpents. 
The castle was inter est in;; because it contained a carved door 
jamb representing a prince with crown and peculiar head-dress; 
a sculptured lintel with a figure en^a^cd in mysterious un anta- 
tion; .dsotlu* shrine in which were square pillars and carved /.ipote 
beams and doorwavs upon the four sides, and the sert>ent bains- 
trade. 

i J. I These discoveries of Mr. J. L. Stephens were I »r a lon^ 
time relied upon as about the only authority; hut M. I>esiie 
Ch.irnay has made two visits to the same localities, one in iS;S 
and the oth< r in iS-8, ami has drought out some new points m 
connection with the ruins. He visited Mexico and examined the 
ruins at Tulau.and found the same general arrangement of apart- 
ments as Stephens had seen at I'xm.il and l\ilcn<|uc. Me also 
pasM-d over the mountains and reached the cities of the Mayas, 
ami made the discovery of another citv. to which he has »i\en 
the name of I.onllard lie took photographs of the various 
buddings whit h were drawn by the artist ( "atherwood. au*i h.is 
turnishro some interesting descriptions ot tin in all. The result 
of his rfforts i on funis t lie impressions which weie receive! fr-'in 
the engraving's and ilesi nptious in the work of Stephens At 
Tulan he found a ti-mple o»ih:^tm^ of pillars in th-- shape «>l mt- 
pc-nts. the heads ot winch lormei! th«* hisr .xn\ t hi- tails the 
capita!. Similar pillars supported the 1 1>. ide ot ti:e bu:liii:i^ l\i 
(."astillo, at < hii h'.nlt/i, ha\ ;n^ s r rprnts heads at the base and 
feather ornaments at the sides, thus showsn.' : "ri.it the same sym- 
bols were emplo\ • d hv the t w o lai t s Mr sp. aks • i| the analogies 
between th«- si 'ilp!-:res ill til' 1 two ir.;nMb lb i ills it all I ><itec 
His photographs ••! the : itili t of i ross \o ; at I'aleiiipir brm^ 
out the I u t that th' re w n* hidden awav amori. th t-»!ia'e wh;ch 
forms the arm ■ ot tin i ros* t terl.un masks \vh:ih >.;^rNt that 
there was a p- r^onil • !em« :it a> wi 1 .is th'- 'rial :re powi h cm- 
bodied in tins shr iv I h»- i tk ■■■ tie it the top ••! the cross, a 
neck!. ice ami m ■ «!.: '1i««ii be!-iw the lice, inrmd us ot the adorn- 
meii's ot th* 1 kin^s im! « hu-ts 1 in- protruding ton,;ue in the 
tahe! ot the temp'- <•! tlie s n. < isa No I. reminds ..ne of the 
pr-itr .dni^ ton.;ue :n the « aVnd ir -t-me >»t Mi \.o». 1 he si- photo- 
graphs r *f n .• out mi »re : ii in »■-. • r the mu 'in! ccm ■■ in the ornaments 
ariil d i ■ o .i" i «ns on th- t.i ides ot the dill-r- nt palaces, th'^r "U 
the :• il ii •■ a! K i' »ah bein/ v« rv bri-filu' ' The !a ide ■ •! !* c 

• '• \ . . ; ■ ■ ! a 

. » ■ ! ' ; . . .■ ■ -...,■ 

.... ■; ' » »»*■'■•.. : i ■■ _«■ ■- 



CULTURE HKRHPt AND DKlKIKIl KISliS. 



I. VI 



Dwarf's I louse or Nunnery is very imposing. The panoramic 
view of nil tin- buildings at I'xmal is especially interesting, as it 
enables us to Win a correct estimate of the character of the 
architecture of the Mayas. In the city called 1 -on I lard there 
was a magnificent building called the "first temple," another 
railed the "second temple." another called the "palace," In 
these are sculptured lintels made from wood and stone which 
represent persons in royal attire, one of them represents a sacrifice 
to l.'uculk.in or a penitential scene.* 

ill The descriptions and engravings furnished by these two 
traveler- enable us to recognize the differences between the 
differ, nl classes of monuments, for wc 
find >n all <>f the cities altars devoted 
to sacrifice, pyramids and palaces winch 
Here devoted to royalty. shrines devoted 
to worship, .dl hating ornament- and 
-ynil ols which were correlated to ih>: 
d-sign or the purpose of the buildings 
themselves. Tills is especially appai- 
ent in the shrines which were devoted to 
specific divinities, for the sculptured fig- 
ures on some of the temples, whether 
outside upon the facades, or upon the 
pier- and doorways, or upon the t.ibh ts 
in the inner chamber, are all significant 
ot the worship ol one divinity, the one 
to whom the temple was devoted. Such 
shrines are to he distinguished from the 
palaces. The palaces were full of rooms, 
which were occupied by the royal family, 
ami Ik t ween the rooms were courts and 
corridors and apartments of state, and 
all tin 1 conveniences v hicli became tin 
honieot royalty. There were occasionally 
shrines in the palace, in private apart- 
ments, tu which aitais and tablets 




erected. Surrounding 
,, some of which were used for 
In the gardens. at the loot ol the pyramids, there were 
rorated with tlie adornments of royalty, and on the 
drs ot the pyramids gigantic heads, some of them fifteen feet 
igh, as high .is the columns themselves. These, however, only 
[infirm tin- impression already formed, namely, that the statues 
ithin the palaces were the portraits of deified kings, that the 
s > >n tin- tablets in the shrines represented the nature divin- 
ind it there are any "Culture Heroes" to be recogni/cd.thcy 
i be found u]»on the isolated shrines or upon the pyramids 
Inch contained statues upon their summits 



■he ,...:.. 

H.ir.k-11, 



l>« 



154 THK AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

It may be that there were capitals, in which kings had their 
seats of empire, but there were also sacred cities devoted to 
particular gods. Charnay thinks that Palcnque was not a royal 
palace, but a priestly habitation, a magnificent convent occupied 
by the clergy, and, like Teotihuacan, Izumal and Cozumal, a city 
resorted to as a place of pilgrimage. He thinks that there were 
capitals in which were kingly mansions, and the history of the 
people can be found among the reliefs. Tezcuco of New Mexico 
may have been such a capital among the Nahuas, Copan, Chichen- 
Itza, (Juirigua, I'xmal and Kabah may have been the capitals 
of the Mavas. Whether there were cities or shrines which 
were sacred to the culture heroes of the Mayas, as Cbolula was 
among the Toltecs, remains a question. The national divinities, 
such as (Juctzatlcoatl, Hnitzilipochtli, ruled over particular cities 
among the Nahuas, and it may be there were national divinities 
among the Mayas. The palace at Tezcuco was a collection of 
buildings composed of royal residences, public offices, courts of 
law. It extends from east to west 1234 yards, and from north to 
south 9S7 yards. There were in it two large plazas or courts, 
one of which served as a public market. A |>alace devoted to 
Quetzatlcoatl had halls facing the four cardinal points. The 
hall of gold faced to the east, the hall of emeralds faced to the 
south, the hall of silver, decorated with sea shells, faced to the 
north, and the hall decorated with feather-work faced to the west. 
This was in the northern province, but the ruins which have 
been found in the southern provinces of Yucatan and Guatemala 
arc more magnificent than those of Mexico. This forces upon 
us the conviction that there were three classes of beings that 
were worshij>cd — nature divinities, culture heroes and deified 
kings. 

(4 ) The task is to distinguish the divinities from kings. The 
clue is furnished to us by the study of the symbols. es|>ccially 
when taken along with the character of the pyramids, and the 
buildings on the pyramids. We have spoken of the correlation. 
Ixt us considsr the resemblances and contrasts. There are at 
Copan symbols on the statues or sculptured columns which re- 
semble those on the door-posts and facades, as the same or similar 
head-dresses and personal ornaments are repeated. At I'alcnquc 
there are symbols on the tablets in the shrines which resembled 
those found on the piers and facades, but as a general thing the 
ornaments and symbols on the shrines differed troin those on the 
tablets, and the symbols on the palaces differed decidedly from 
those on the altars, those on the altars differed from those on the 
friezes and cornices of the facades. This shows that the sym- 
bolism of the Mayas was correlated to the design, and that the 
distinction between the royal |>ersonages and the nature divini- 
ties prevailed in all the cities. 

( 5 ) This brings us to th«* main question. Does the study of the 




DV»»BF STATUE «0M COP«N. 




TURBANKD KINO AT COPAN. 



CULTl'RE Ht'.KOKS ASP I'EIKIKP KISH-, 

monuments enable us to identify tlu- culture heroe*' It may b- 
little tiling which will furnish a clue by which to identity a d:v: 
ity— .in eye for Tla'.oc, a bird «r feather- headed serpent \ 
(JuctzatScnatl. a vine ..r leaf or a cross for L'ente'itl. the £•■•'. 
vegetation, a child in the arms fur the god of matvmity. bu! t 
analysis of th-.-e figure- and symb-N. especially when talc 
in connection w.th the study of the architecture, will enable 
to fix upon the divinity to which a building. shrine or tablet a 
devoted. 

The-e are the means by which certain gentlemen hive - j. 
'.<< identify the culture heroes with certain -hrine- M C:.-rr. 
has described the pyramid called 111 La-t:"o, :n l.h:ca»s-It 
and thinks that the building on it was a shrine to i.'uculkan 
fjuet/ailo.atl. a- tin- i- the pyrimid which ha* the -er:-.r-.:- ■ 
balu-trade-. The fat::- red serpen* i- :h-- symbol of th:- ■■.' . : 




Hero.' 
Palcn'] 

the fi K 
were als 
iaily th- 
ascribe- 
in the ; 
l.oril.ar 
sented .. 
one of v 
an-.tr:er 
in.v. n- 
sheet o! 
blent* • ,t 
Bach.,, 
cn-h/a 



He has ..... 
.c.toT.v. 



.t T-i 



id*. - ;vi !h n- 'if: ;*«lt:i >..*. 
1.*. :.r rv -.' I.*x:ru •••'.'! I/. 



•>• 1- 




TURBANED KINO AT COP AN. 



CULTURE HEROES AND DEIFIED KINUS. IM 

monuments enable us to identify the culture heroes? It may be a 
little tiling which will furnish a clue by which to identify a divin- 
ity — an eye for Tlaloc, a bird or feather-headed serpent for 
(Juet/atkoatl, a vine or leaf or a cross for Centcotl, the nod of 
vegetation, a child in the arms for the god of maternity, but the 
analysis of these figures and symbols, especially when taken 
in connection with the study of the architecture, will enable us 
t<> fix upon the divinity to which a building, shrine or tablet was 
devoted. 

Tlie-e are the means by which certain gentlemen have sought 
tu identify the culture heroes with certain shrines. M. Charnay 
has descnlN-d the pyramid called Kl Castillo, in Chichen-Itza, 
ami thinks that the building on it was a shrine to Cuculkan or 
Qm-t/atlcoatl. as this is the pyramid which has the serpents for 
li.iluttr.uk- v The feathered serpent is the symbol of this "Culture 




#V. i—Malur 01 TTiilue 

Mem." lie has ascribed the shrine which contains cross No. 2, at 
I'alcnque, to Tlaloc. for he recognizes the eye of Tlaloc in one of 
the figures on the facades and thinks the palm leaves and masks 
were also emblems. The shrines at L'xmal and I.orillard, espec- 
ially the one with heavy cornice and massive pillars, he also 
ascribe* to Cuculkan, as he recognizes the feather-headed serpent 
in the pillars. The stone lintel which represents a sacrifice at 
I.orillard he ascribes to the same divinity. The statues repre- 
sented as lying upon the back and holding a vase in the hands, 
■ me of which was found by M Le I'longcon.at Chichen-Itza, and 
another at Tezcuco, in Mexico, he ascribes to Tlaloc. i Fig. 2\ 
inasmuch a* there are carved on the surface ol the stone a 
sheet ol water, aquatic plants and fish, all of which are the em- 
blems uf Tlaloc. Others think it represents the Mexican or Maya 
llacchus. or god of wine. The doorpost on the Castillo at Chich- 
cn-lt/a. winch has sculptured figures with head-dress, girdle. 



1.-.6 THE AMERICAN ANTIQl'ARIAN. 

sash, sandal, wand and a bearded face, with the vine expressing 
speech extending from the mouth, Charnay thinks represents 
(Juctzatlcoatl. on account of the beard. Another figure on the 
c.ipital above the pillars has a turban with a feather head-dress 
ami stands with upraised arms supporting the entablature. He 
wears large bracelets, a collar of precious stones, a shield, a richly 
embroidered mantle and has a long, flowing beard and the same 
symbols of speech in front of him. This figure, Charnay thinks, 
also represents (Juetzatlcoatl. There is a figure of a statue stand- 
ing on a pyramid with a jKCiiliar hcad-dre^s, a garment or flow- 
ing robe with crosses upon it. but which has no beard. This 
figure, Hamy thinks, represents the (Juet/atlcoatl divinity and 
recognizes in the figure the syml>ols of this culture hero. The 
tablet of the cross, No. 2, at Rdcmjue, Dr. Krinton thinks, repre- 
sented (Juet/atlcoatl, as it contains the bird on the summit of the 
cross, and represents two figures as offering sacrifice to the bird/ 
With as much reason we may identify the shrine or temple with 
the three tablets as the shrine of the goddess Centcotl. the wife 
of Tlaloc. for there arc three figures on the piers of this temple 
which represent a female with a child in the arms, which is the 
emblem of this goddess among the Nahuas. She was regarded 
as the goddess of maternity. At the back of the shrine is the 
tablet containing the prayer to the goddess. There is an isolated 
pyramid on which is the shrine which i> called the shrine of the 
beau- relief. In the shrine is the tablet shown in the cut. See 
Fig. 3. It represents a warrior with a helmet, sitting on a globe, 
the globe resting on a double-headed thr- ne. The tablet, as a 
work of art, secured admiration from Mr. Stephens. This has 
n«»t been identified with any particular divinity or culture hero, 
yet the elegance of the figure and the finish of the art in the tab- 
let and the isolation of the pyramid ami the shrine, show that 
it was an imj>ortant divinity. It may represent Cucalkan. the 
Maya "Culture Hero," who was the j»od of air |>ersonificd. or, 
what is more probable, the Maya god of war. for Huit/ilopochtli, 
the A /tec god of war, is described by the early writers an an 
image seated on an "a/ure globe." under a canopy which sym- 
bolized the heavens, and as richly decorated. 

III. This leads us to the subject of the deified kings. We 
have already spoken of the difference between the pyramids on 
which were the |>alaces and those on which were the shrines or 
temples, and have |>ointed out the fart that the monuments and 
ornaments were correlated to them. This point is illustrated 
still more by the study of the so-called portrait columns. 
These have been taken as representing the "Culture IlcriKrs" 
or the |iersonal divinities, and they have been compared to the 
figures on the tablets; but we maintain that they were the por- 



*)'i !>«i->fl It H !••. f i.r I'il <:.( i!(i.r.( i«i N v.. 
r ! !!.«■ i -1 >** * 4f H . 1/ p ■, M. mu>i I .•■■<. the ( -! «>! u.ii 



V. *\ t"aLctiii..c. «ai I-' «■ trn 



CULTURE HEROES AND DEIFIED KIS«iS. )»7 

traits of kinj;s, and that they illustrate the paraphernalia ol 
royalty. While there arc upon them, cs[«cial1y upon the back, 
symbols reminding us of symbols of the nature gods, especially 
of Tlaloc, the "rain god," yet the fact that the faces upon them 
are so lite-like proves that they were the portraits nl kings. 




We are to notice here that there was a difference between the 
decorations of the kings and that of the priests, those of the 
kings being very elaborate and abounding with many personal 
ornaments . those ol the priests being plainer but more symbolic. 
We shall sec this if we compare the different figures and statues 
which Mr. J. L Stephens discovered at the foot of the pyramids 
of C<>j>an with those figures which he saw on the bas-reliefs 
which covered the facades at I'alenquc. We maintain that the 
lormer represent the forms of kings and chiefs, clothed in their 



I.lh 



TIIK.WIKItll'AN ANTIql'AUIAN 



official n^.ili.i ; hut the latter represent the priests, who are 
clothed in priesllv garments and at the same time wore tht* svm- 
b-.:-.i.f tin- iliviniVm which they served. The .special ill.is'l ra- 
tion i- tli.it found mii the Ui,aile of tin- :u!t>r.iti>rio L'asa No. •, at 
1'ali ii-pir; here there i- .1 figure ol";i kirij; .'none side of the ilonr 
way and -i priest upon the other, while within the shrine is the 
mask wiikh represents the sun, with a protruding tongue, sus- 
pended to the i-ms-.-b.itv Tluseexhil.it tin- three d.iss..-..kin^s, 
priests .mil nature divinities. H..l.len in.iint.iins tluit the port rait 
statues and the I'.ilempje has reliefs represt-ntthe same divinities, 
.mil has written .1 hihnred article to prove this. >>iviii^ ihr svmMs 
id in the in. 1 localities. Me *,„. 



•i the idol ilc 
! prunes anil < -tlit-r 



l»y St.ph.n-, .tNo nl 
.inn-nts in the head dn 



trlti 




th. 



|uee: 



ll 



Illi-V were repeated on the 
h..diis ,,| the priests, and 
In mi these r< semblances nn- 
.! rt.ik.-s t.) give a cine to 
the solution '•! the hiero- 
;!yplli. s The comparison 
is tit l.l.h.-d. for there is 
nry littl'- th it is inmitioii 
Iwtiii - 11 tin two 1 :.i-s. . --i 
(i.;iii.-s. the i.-^.tia 111 the 
-culpt.-.r. .1 



, tin- head- 
it.- h.n^ 
:e It the 
tha.l taken 



,. h 



! hi 



■ I tii 



the pcvii.i.n 
:*.■ the Hind 
:ii-n|.Iin.!i-J 

which r,p. 




AIR GOD DRESSED AS A KINO. 
.>d Ihc L*lt Kisi ul ih« Tempi* of lb* Son « Pklaaqs* 




RAIN COO DRESSED AS A PRIEST. 



CULTURE HEROES AND DEIFIED KING?. 



1M 



resents the serpent's skin, the eagle's beak and the parrot's beak, 
one of which is the symbol of the god Tlaloc and the other of 
the god of war. These symbols, which are on the back of the 
statues, show the divinities which were worshiped, but those on 
the front were evidently the portraits of the royal family. This 
is confirmed by comparing the figures which are on the Tizoc 
stone in Mexico *ith those on the bas-relief at Palenque. The 
first evidently represents a king triumphing over conquered kings; 
whereas the bas-reliefs represent the priests which were connected 




FXg. J.— T*c That Bonr. 

with the shrines and the divinities which were worshiped in them.* 
There arc few monuments whicii show greater contrasts than do 
the Tizoc stone and the Palenque tablets. 

The figures on the stone show what was the royal attire of the 
Aztec kings, while those on the bas-reliefs show the attire of the 
priests, and perhaps the conventional dress of the culture heroes, 
as well as the attire of the common people. There were in three 
of the shrines two figures which were dressed alike. They had 
the same attitudes and were engaged in the same act of sacrifice. 
These may be seen standing on cither side of the cross, which 
was the central object of worship and whicii symbolized the nature 
powers. In one tablet, the tablet of the sun. they stand upon 
crouching human figures; in another, the tablet of the tree, they 
stand upon the corolla of a flower or branch of a vine; in a 
third, the tablet of the bird and cross, they arc standing upon an 
altar. They arc surrounded by hieroglyphics, which may have 



it Chicken li»». p. yto. 



160 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

been intended for a prayer. Their attire is made up of drapery 
which falls in folds, and probably represents the common attire 
of the people, especially the better class. They represent two 
persons, male and female, offering sacrifice. Corresponding to 
these, on the outside of the temple of the sun, there are two 
figures — one clad in the attire of a king, the other of a priest See 
Plates. These may have been intended to represent the divin- 
ities Tlaloc, the god of rain, and Huitzilipochtli, the god of war; 
but if so they were gods who were clothed in the attire of kings 
— . — ■ - . and priests.* The comparison of 

l A gk A I these figures will enable us to 



I 



L 



m/>f 



\&. 



%r. 



"-««-» 



see the manner of representing 
i_ the different classes; those on 
L. the central tablets were symbolic 
, ol the nature divinities; those 
\ on the outer tablets represent- 
> ing the common people offering 
sacrifices; those on the facades 
or piers, kings and priests, wait- 
ing upon or worshiping the 
^Sif^# /-"* nature divinities, the god of war, 

~9\ w of rain, the air and sun. 

|W* J£ ' There are, however, figures on 

%\ — ^Z the bas-reliefs in the palace at 

I'alenquc which represent war- 
riors or kings, with captives 
before them. These figures arc 
clothed almost exactly the same 
as arc the figures on the Tizoc 
stone and are in the same atti- 
tude. Stephens says: "The prin- 
cipal personage stands in an uj>- 
right position, and exhibits an 
ng.+.-o**i~ *«d *■««(»« #w* extraordinary facial angle. Sup- 
posing the statues to be images of living personages, they indicate 
a race now lost and unknown. The headdress is evidently a plume 
of leathers; over the shoulders is a collar decorated with studs, 
and a breastplate; part ol the ornament of the girdle is broken; 
the tunic is probably a leopard's skin; the whole drest no doubt 
exhibits the costume of this unknown people. At his feet are two 




naked figui 



toated cross-legged, and apparently suppliants." 






CULTURE HEROES AND DEIFIED RINGS. 161 

Another bas-relief was upon the pier which faced the western 
corridor of the palace. The subject consists of two figures with 
facial angles similar to that already piven, plumes of feathers 
and other decorations for head-dresses, necklaces, girdles and 
sandals. Each has hold of the same curious baton, which re- 
sembles a serpent, and opposite their hands are hieroglyphics. 
On the adjoining pier is a bas-relief representing two figures, one 
kneeling as if to receive an honor, and the other a blow." See 
Fij;. 6. The standing figure here seems to be that of a warrior, 
as there is an ornamental battle-axe projecting over the right 
shoulder and a wand is held in the left hand.* 

The same point is illustrated by the figures which arc described 
by Charnay as carved upon the stone lintels at Lorillard City, 
for these represent royalty in the act of devotion, one of them 
standing, the other kneeling. The kneeling figure is a female 
figure who, as a royal penitent, was undergoing the painful cer- 
emony of drawing the rope covered with thorns through her 
tongue as an act of penance or sacrifice; while the male figure, 
called the Achcantli, carries in his hand a palm branch or sceptre 
and encourages the penitent in her painful task. The head- 
dress, wide collar, heavy bracelets, ear-rings and superb mantle 
of the kneeling figure show how rich was the royal attire. We 
think that any one who examines the engravings and studies out 
the different ornaments contained in the head-dresses will con- 
clude that they represented the royal attire and that this was 
very different from the priestly garb. We acknowledge that the 
various parts of the royal attire were full of symbols, but this is 
only in accord with the custom of the aborigines of America. 
They show that there was a development of ornamentation on 
this continent as well as symbolism. We may take each part of 
the dress of kings and chiefs and examine them in turn and 
find that they were all emblematic of the occupation, rank and 
office of the person that wore them. We may begin with the 
savages and work up to the civilized races and find that each article 
of dress <jrew into elegance and finish, and at the same time 
increased in its significance and symbolic use; but the fact helps 
us to identify the different classes and distinguish between the 
kings and priests, and between these and other culture heroes. 

The same lesson may be learned from some of the figures 
which were discovered by Charnay in the building called M the 
castle." Here there was a single tablet which had three figures 
upon it. the central clad in the attire of a king; the one above it 



The cr >»n m the h«\* 1 it *ai«i to coouiq an elephant's trunk, but the engraving shows 
th*t .1 «i' the u« xjk. m\ n.*i he* id CA«>jue or helmet, such a* wan commonly worn by war- 
r. >ra. The .<rn«t ncnt »h...h has been taken (or the elephant's trunk is only the divided 
•tart, »hkh ;• the j«ui, %;gn of speech. To prote this we shall refer to two bas-reliefs. 
«>tw >\ thric i« ti the i » »r wjy in r>x>m No. i of the same palace. Here the hetmtt has 
wa«;ng feathrri pr>;c tug from it, but is made from the upper jaw of some monster with a 



;lar;ng eye an i a \>ni \>\ .truiing n<«*c. something Ilk; a tap;r, which here is turned up and 
>atk. but «L\h tanu »t i»c taken lor an elephant's trunk. Mephen's Yi 



ucatan. Vol. II, p. tin 



W» THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

having the form, face, attitude and peculiarities of the culture 
hero Cuculkan, as it had a beard, and was peculiarly draped and 
adorned ; the one below has the face of Tlaloc, the god of rain. 
This tablet represents a king attended by two divinities, the god 
of air and the god of rain. It was evidently erected in honor of 
some historic king. 

"At Kabah is shown two remarkable bas-reliefs raised in honor 
of allied caciques. Like the Tizoc stone, they represent a con- 
queror in rich Yucatec costume receiving the sword ol a captive 
Aztec* The head-dress of each is covered with long waving 
plumes, which rise above the crown and fall to the very feet. 
The crown itself of one of the figures is also fashioned out of 
the head of an animal, like those of the Mexican manuscripts." 
Before the other figure there kneels a king or cacique, with a 
weapon in his hand which resembles the flint-edged sword used 
at the present day. It has on its head the usual feathered head- 
dress. 

The place where the best illustration of the costume and re- 
galia ot kings is found at Copan. Here there are statues or 
idols, in which are the portraits <>f kings and queens, covered 
with the most elaborate and complicated series of sculptured 
figures, all of which, when they come to l>e analyzed, prove to 
be the various parts of the kingly dress, including the crown or 
head-dress, the necklace and collar, shoulder piece, breastplate, 
medallions on the breastplate, wristlets, kilt or skirt, with its 
medallions and other ornaments and fringes, the girdle and sash 
which hangs sus[>ended from it, the elaborate gaiters and anklets, 
the sandals and footwear. These idols were for the most part 
situated on the ground, separated from any shrine or temple, but 
near the terraced pyramid which supported the palace, two of 
them at the very toot of the pyramid, * but seventeen of them in 
a court or garden a little removed from the palace. The follow- 
ing is Mr. Stephens' description of them. He says: "At the 
point marked L stands one ol the columns or idols which irtvc 
the peculiar character to the ruins at Copan. It stands about 
six feet from the base of the pyramid wail. It is thirteen feet in 
height, four feet in Iront, three deep. It is sculptured on all four 
sides, from the base to top, ami is one * »t" the richest and most 
elaborate specimens in the whole extent ol the ruins. Before 
it. at a distance ol eight leet, is a huge bl:»« k of sculptured stone, 
which the Indians i.i.i ,n\ altar. Following the wall is another 
monument, or idol, of the ^mie si/e and in many respects sipn- 
lar. The character of this image as it stands at the foot of" the 

•!'r ■-, * ■ | ' ■ • • U '.-: at ■•*:-•;■•• . a . • .» - * r » *■ 

•r ■'•■.»■•■■ * • " ■ • * ' ■ , ■ ' ' r »'■ :•■•••»■•■ • : 

. ■ i ! •■ ^ i • r * • • ■ • \ ■ ■ ■ i ■ . ! VI ■ i r ■ * .»• ! t * .- »• j .-**■! . 

»■■•!'. v * i . ■ ■• : . . : -. \ ; i u ; ■ tB' i.i l . • '. • c. ■; 

I- '■ ' .1'-' ■ i. *■!;•:.! "A ■■■ . ; .. 




v^^w^^^mw^irW sL^m 



FROM THE INNER TABLET OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN 
..« ihr [i«ii: t.l.lr, u. .. | s |!u.( i. T-» •(*■(• >ii.n C c-l i. ■ St. Amlm 

i. i [■ ii rmr ; ..!■>.« «tip*n> fji ll'ir.l •)«d'"l! *■■■ Hi fir. J p(..tfudin« 
1(1. f.U( :l t> ui.i • U.'r *:lh prdlrujin* I.-iniu* i C> >u< '.in h»ute« »llh 
u-.rtli- I I i >■■ m ■ iircl*. dmjnj tun* uf n:n<l i) mix -It, miiJ :imti. 



riHK'rje 



CULTURE HEROES AND DEIFIED KINGS. 163 

pyramid is grand, and it would be difficult to exceed the rich- 
ness of the ornament and sharpness of the sculpture." 

The large number of idols found by Mr. Stephens were at 
some distance from the pyramid, in a court which may have 
been cither the cemetery or the garden, as it was surrounded by 
a terraced wall, and was filled with idols and altars which faced 
in toward the court. "The first, on the point marked K, was 
fallen and the lace destroyed. At a distance of two hundred 
feet stands the one marked S, with its front to the east, on a 
pedestal six feet square. Before it at a distance of eight feet 
ten inches, is an altar. The engravings represent the front and 
back view. The front is supposed to be the figure of a woman, 
and the countenance presents traits of individuality leading to 
the supposition that it is a portrait. The back is a different sub- 
ject." Sec Plate.* Here at the top is a crown of featherwork, 
which gracefully falls away from the helmet, which has the face 
of Tlaloc. Below this is a diadem which hangs across the fore- 
head. On the shoulders is an elaborate collar or necklace, com- 
posed of precious stones, and a shoulder-piece wrought into the 
shape of trailing vines. On the hands and arms are wide wrist- 
lets made of some rich material. A medallion hangs suspended 
between the arms. A fringe or overskirt may be seen below the 
arms. Three sashes fall gracefully over the skirt, one of them 
reaching to the ground. The skirt is wrought into the usual 
pattern, with cross hatching over a plain fabric. It has a ruffle 
at its lower edge, which seems to be covered with a row of prec- 
ious stones. The feet are wrapped in moccasins, with a heavy 
border at the back, and resemble those of a China woman. 

The symbols on this statue are as follows : On the back, the 
face of Tlaloc, the rain god, with its heavy grinders, sunken 
check. bul£in«j eye. and other symbols peculiar to that divinity. 
This face is seen in the center of the statue, on the back of the 
female, and is surrounded by a graceful framework of drapery, 
with fringes and folds, and medallions in the folds. The most 
remarkable symbol is the one which may be seen on the forehead 
of Tlaloc. This is the same symbol which was seen on the cast 
of the altar at the World's Fair, and which there called forth 
remark, as it was said to be a phallic ornament and to have a 
mythologic significance. The next figure is still more remarka- 
ble, for it seems to be the figure of a king, but a king with a 
peculiarly ^lann^ eye. Stephens says of it : "It is one of the 
most beautiful in Copan, and is equal to the finest Kgyptian 
sculpture. It stands at the foot of a wall of steps, with only the 
head and p.irt of the breast rising above the earth. The eyes 
in this statue turn out very much as the eyes of the natives of 
this region do at the present time. See Plate.* 

•Frrt.a.r "tji .r » ! itn4\ th.nk* that the »an;e M >'. per* »n.fi«*% *e*«ral •l-.iioitie*— the 
<!rajfOtt * m«. <j;.tt.'At >atl. the »>u«n'« fjuc. (. eotc.i'.. »»i the Met ^an (err*; the lace j& 
tf.e : 4 k. T.a. k *^«-c I*' ale ul the Bur.eti >t4tuc. 



164 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Near this was the statue we call the "bearded king." It will be 
noticed that there is no feather head-dress on this king, but the 
collar is made of a mosaic of precious stones. The breastplate 
and shonlder-pieces are very elaborate. The skirt is decorated 
with a double fringe, medallions and solid ovals ; sashes fall over 
the skirt, one of them terminating in a peculiar ornament resem- 
bling serpents' fangs. For garters, there are two rows of precious 
stones and medallions; anklets arc highly ornamental, a rosette 
and frill between the ankles. We recognize no symbol on this 
statue except the serpents' fang and the solid ovals. It stands 
at the foot of a wall rising in steps to the height of thirty or 
forty feet. Its height is eleven feet nine inches. See plate. 
Before it, at a distance of twelve feet, is a colossal altar. It 
appears to represent the portrait of a king or hero, perhaps 
erected into a deity. It is judged to be a portrait, and its sex is 
ascertained by the beard and mustache. The altar is seven feet 
square and lour feet high, and richly sculptured on all sides. 
The front represents a death's head. The top is sculptured and 
contains grooves for the passage of the blood of the victims. 

The next engraving represents the "turbancd king." "It ex- 
hibits the fnmt of a monument twelve feet high, four feet wide, 
which stands on a pedestal seven feet square. The front view 
seems a portrait, probably of some deified king or hero. The 
two ornament** at the top appear like the trunk of an elephant. 
A crocodile's head was seven feet from it. but appears to have 
no connection with it." The hack presents a different subject. 
The decorations of rovaltv on this statue arc as follows : The 
turban on the head, which is covered with ornamented drapery; 
this turban makes the face resemble that of a t luncsc mandarin, 
ami reminds us of the Tartar mode of covering the head He low 
this is the chm-pieir, whirh seems to be attached to the breast- 
plate, and projects .is high .is the cheek. The breastplate and 
shoulder-pieces on this statin- are very elaborate, but they con- 
tain no symbols The -kirt is cover e i with medallions and has 
a fringe made up of solid ovals, a heavy sash or max'.li falling 
over the skirt, and gaitei.s which seem to be conne» ted with the 
maxth. There are many ^ynib'Is km\ this statue, but the regalia 
is more striking and pi*>mmrnt than the symbols. The symbols 
on this monuui' nt are as follows . ( i ■ The three dots or spotted 
disks .it the top, in front, and at the sides <>f the figure, a sym- 
bol \\huh is repeated t»ur or five tim*-s on the back of the mon- 
ument i -V 1 lie two whor's or coils situated between the 
elephants trunk, so-called, a symbol which is very common and 
is often repeated m the other monuments, i y\ The medallions 
which hang suspend -d from the .inns and from ornaments on 
the skirt, the medallion* !a« m« r each w.iv. .;.' The solid ovals 
which form the fr:n r ;' o! th-- s, s :rt and the ornament on the sash. 
'5 ) The most remarkable symbol is the one which is seen on 



CULTURE HEROES AND DEIFIED KING8. 166 

the back. It represents the (ace of the sun god with open mouth, 
protruding tongue, glaring eye; every part connected with or- 
naments and symbols, that the face is recognized only after a 
close study of the different parts and comparing it with the face 
on the altar. 

The next engraving represents a monument seventy-two feet 
north from the last. The front is toward the west. It is twelve 
feet high, on a pedestal six feet square. Before it, at a distance 
of eleven feet, is an altar very much defaced. The front view is 
a portrait. The back is made up of hieroglyphics arranged in 
tablets. Each tablet has two hieroglyphics joined together. The 
tablets probably contain the history of the king or hero deline- 
ated. The royal regalia on this statue is also very elaborate. 
On the head is a peculiar framework, which seems to be com- 
posed of four bars; decorated and elaborate. On the shoulders 
are many highly wrought ornaments. The necklace is made 
from precious stones. The skirt is also decorated with orna- 
ments, but the garters and anklets arc the most elaborate part of 
the dress. It would seem as if the legs, knees and feet were 
loaded with jewels. The only symbols on this statue are as fol- 
lows: At the top of the ornament is the head of Tlaloc, with the 
usual eye, open mouth, sunken cheeks, with three dots on either 
side ol the head and a diadem crowned with feathers, the ovals 
at the bottom of the skirt. The back is made up entirely of 
hieroglyphics. It is a very striking statue. The face is massive; 
the thighs, which are naked, arc very heavy; ankles and feet 
clumsy. The whole figure is short, but the ornamentation on it 
is elaborate and highly wrought. We have dwelt upon these 
figures in order to show that the statues of the kings were entirely 
different from these of the "Culture Heros," and to prove that 
they were not idols which represented divinities, but were por- 
trait statues of kings. This shows that there were three classes 
of beings worshiped by the Mayas, as follows : The personified 
nature powers, Culture Heroes and Deified Kings, the shrines 
having been devoted to the first class, the isolated pyramids to 
the second and the palace courts to the last. 



166 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

AN OBSTETRICAL CONJURATION. 

By D. G. Brinton, M. D. 

The "medicine men" of the native American tribes were 
everywhere prominent figures in the primitive social lile, usually 
forming a guild or caste by themselves. They claimed the 
possession of mysterious, occult powers, by which thev could 
control the elements and the operations of nature, and also bind 
or loose the spiritual potencies which direct human fate. 

Nearly everywhere they are reported to have employed in 
their invocations and chants a dialect or mode of speech, which 
differed from that in common use, and was calculated to throw 
an additional air ol solemnity on their expressions. Sometimes 
this seems to have been a mere jargon or argot % like thieves* 
slang; at others, it bears evident traces of archaic forms and 
obsolete terms, indicating that it is a survival of a more ancient 
stratum of the language of the tribe. 

Frequently the obscurity of this sacred dialect is rendered 
still more dense by the introduction of numerous figurative and 
symbolic expressions, and by references to rites and supersti- 
tions which are local and little known. Hence it becomes a 
severe task tor one even well versed in the ordinary language 
to translate the chants and conjurations of the medicine men, or, 
speaking more properly of them, the native priesthood. 

This is well illustrated by a series of specimens Irom Mexico 
which have been lately published Irom a manuscript of the 
seventeenth century, in the extensive "Collection of Inedited 
Documents relating to the History of Spain," printed by the 
Spanish government. The author, Father de la Scrna, made it 
his business to gather a number of the formulas at that time — 
about 1650 — in current use among the native doctors, his object 
being to show that they were really in the spirit ol paganism, 
and ought to be condemned by the parish priests. Being a 
thorough scholar in the Nahuatl language, he succeeded in 
learning not only the cx;icc words, but also the hidden signifi- 
cance of these curious prayers and magical chants. 

Some of them were couched in terms quite remote trom the 
ordinary tongue, departing trom it so far as to introduce new 
phonetic elements, such as the letter R and '.he initial L, which 
are never heard in pure Nahuatl. In most examples, figures ol 
speech and mcthaphorical expressions abound, which were 
understood by the initiated, but conveyed no meaning to the 
ordinary hearer. Considerable interest attaches to these figures, 
as there is no doubt but that they were transmitted Irom an age 
anterior to the Conquest; and il v\c would understand the sym- 
bolism which is apparent in ancient Mexican and Mava manu- 
scripts and preserved on the walls ol their temples, here is an 



AN OBSTETRICAL CONJURATION. 167 

opportunity to learn under what mystic forms they concealed 
the true meaning of their rhapsodies and incantations from the 
common herd. 

Many of these native officiants, and indeed, often the highest 
in rank, were women. There were also many of that sex who 
practiced medicine, uniting a real knowledge of the therapeutic 
powers of various herbs with a large amount of mummery and 
magical procedures. Men-midwives were unknown, women 
alone attending in confinement cases. When the labor was 
delayed, the child was delivered by manual aid; but before this 
operation was undertaken, a mystical formula was repeated by 
the midwife, which is the one I select as an example of these 
curious exorcisms. It runs as follows: 

THE CONJURATION. 

44 Come now to our aid, you Five Fates; and thou, my 
Mother, the rabbit with its mouth upward, thou must now begin 
the green throes. Let us see who is so daring as to attempt to 
destroy us. 

44 Come also thou, the nine times smitten, the nine times 
l>eaten ; see, we scatter thee abroad for the yellow throes, the 
green throes. And come thou, my Father, thou of the four 
reed*, thou with the red hair, who spits flame; and thou, white 
woman, ani thou, spirit ot yellowness, come. 

44 Come, ye goddesses who open the secret fountains, come 
and aid this birth; come spirits of the Five Fates, turn your 
gaze in one direction, that we may overcome whatever would 
oppose us; that 1 may be strengthened to resist and destroy 
even the daughter of the gods." 

The explanations of these adjurations are as follows: 
The " Five Fates " are the five fingers, which the midwife is 
about to use; "my Mother, the rabbit with its mouth upward," 
is the earth, Mother Earth, from which all things grow upward, 
called a rabbit in opposition to the figure in the moon, which the 
natives also called a rabbit; 4t green throes ", because pains were 
divided in the native nosology into colors, green, yellow, grey, 
etc.; the "nine times beaten" is the tobacco, which was cere- 
monially prepared in this manner; "my Father" refers to the 
fire, called of " four reeds ", because the new fire was ceremon- 
ially kindled on the day of the native calendar named "four 
reeds"; the " white woman" is the copal gum burned for in- 
cense; the "goddesses who open the secret fountains" are 
probably the divinities or personified forces which preside over 
child-birth; while the final reference to "the daughter of the 
gods " is an obscure allusion which I can not explain. 

This instructive example indicates how far removed was the 
speech ol the priestly class from that of ordinary life, and how 
carefully it should be studied, if we would enter into the spirit of 
native embolism. 



168 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES. 
By William Coplkv Winslow, Ph. D. f LL. I). 

Tiik Trmplk of Qukkn Hatasu. — Ever since Mariette dis- 
closed the sculptures on a wall of the temple of Hatasu, at 
Deir-el-Bahari, representing the naval expedition to Punt, that 
spot has been accounted a rich site (or further investigation. In 
her lecture on that famous monarch, the "Queen Elizabeth of 
Ancient Egypt," Miss Edwards graphically portrays what that 
temple was in its glory and what may be expected in excavat- 
ing so promising a site. Dr. Naville, of the fcgvpt Exploration 
Fund, in but three weeks 9 labor last season, found a group of 
chambers under the iltbris of the clifT; a hall ot offerings against 
the western rock; a chamber on the east containing a high 
altar; and a little chapel leading into the northern clifT, with 
beautiful painted reliefs, which are l>eing reproduced in color 
for the Fund's volume. From a communication just sent tome 
from Thebes, I make these extracts upon the work in progress: 
The temple is being almost literally cut out of the mountain. 
When the vast mounds upon the middle terrace have been 
cleared away— a labor which can not proceed very fast -the 
brilliantly white colonade round its northwestern end will become 
a landmark visible for miles. The clearance of this part of the 
temple will have a double interest; firstly, architectural, for 
Mariette'!* plan has been found to bear very little relation to 
fact, and the present apjx-arance of" the walls promises unusual 
features ol construction; secondly, artistic, lor we have found 
that a wall ol unknown painted reliefs exists below the accumu- 
lated rubbish. The»e will be laid bare during the next fortnight, 
but the main mass <>i the mound* will hardly disappear this 
season. Already upon the upper terrace are piled more than 
three hundred M'ulptured blink**, taken by the Copt* from all 
parts of the temple to 1 uild their convent walls. In the mounds 
ot the middle terrace we shall recover nearly as many more, of 
which some show already. When all is cleared, and the possi- 
bilities of further discoverv exhausted, these blocks will be 
sorted, and, if possible, built up again into their original places. 
This work, which will be supervised by Mr. John E. Newberry, 
the architect attached to the expedition, will In* of the tint 
importance, both on artistic and historical grounds; for it will 
result in the reconstruction of several scenes hardlv interior 
either in interest or workmanship to the famous Punt reliefs. For 
example, much has l>een recovered of the decoration ot the 
third or lowest terrace, showing that there was represented 



EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES. 169 

another nautical scene — the transportation of two obelisks from 
Elephantine at the bidding of the queen. Either in the mounds 
or by the demolition of the Coptic walls, left standing on the 
upper terrace, it is hoped that the rest of this scene may be 
found. Every effort is being made to preserve all evidence as 
to the subsequent history of the temple, and to find the small 
objects of antiquity, scattered among the debris. So far the 
main finds of the latter class have been beads, scarabs and 
figurines, made of the famous blue-glazed ware. Good Demotic 
and Coptic ostraka are frequent, and there is much refuse from 
sifted mummy pits of Dynasty XXII. Some coffins and mum- 
mies have been found lying loose among the upper layers of 
tlibris; one fine case belonged to Namen-Menkhet-amen, a re- 
lation of Osorkhon II. and Takelothis; another contains a very 
finely rolled mummy, for whose reception it was not originally 
intended; a third is early Coptic, ana shows on the front of the 
outer cloth representations of wine and corn in the hands, while 
below is the sacred boat of Osiris, and over the heart a wastika. 

Dr. W. G. Hogarth, of the Fund staff, who writes the above, 
very truly remarks that architecturally Hatasu's Temple has no 
parallel; in the quality and preservation of its reliefs it vies with 
any of the best known tombs; it is situated in a grander situa- 
tion than any other building in Egypt. The boon which its 
clearance will confer on lovers of art and the picturesque can 
hardly be overstated; and science will gain not less by the ex- 
ploration of a monument of the great Dynasty XVIII, the finest 
existing memorial of Egypt's most famous queen. 

Atlas ok Ancient Egypt. — Such is the constant and grow- 
ing need of a portable atlas of Ancient Egypt, for information 
and reference, that the Egypt Exploration Fund committee 
has decided to issue one at an early day. Under date of 
February 17th, Miss Emily Paterson, the London Secretary, 
forecasts the atlas in this form: Preface; Introduction; Biblical 
References to Localities in Egypt; The Dynasties of the Old 
Kingdom and Empire; General Map of Ancient Egypt with 
Adjacent Lands; General Map of Modern Egypt; Map of An- 
cient Egypt (the Delta to Beni Suef); Tables of the Nomes, 
with thnr capitals and the gods worshiped in them; Map of 
Ancient Egypt \ Beni Suef to Ekhmim); the same (from Ekhmim 
to Phila:>; the same (from Assouan to Semneh); the same (from 
Semneh to Khartum); Map of Goshen and the Route of the 
Exodus; Ancient and Modern Authorities for Egyptian Geog- 
raphy and History; Index. 

These eight maps, with the tables and other data, will be 
very much sought after by all readers of ancient history and 
explorations. 

The comparatively small maps at the end of the Archaeolog- 
ical Report for 1892-93, published last summer, illustrate how 



170 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

useful such an atlas will be. This brochure, by the way, is an 
avant eourcw of the elaborate volume of the explorations and 
the equally elaborate volume of the survey published each year. 
It sketches, too, the progress of Egyptology during the year. 

Dr. 'Navillb very properly will preside over the Interna- 
tional Congress of Orientalists, to be held in his own city, 
Geneva, from September 3d to 12th. It is to be hoped that 
complete harmony will soon prevail among all the members of 
this distinguished body. It will be recalled that a section of the 
Congress met last in Lisbon and another held its session in 
London. 

Miss Mary Brodrick, Ph.D., of College Hall, Byng Place, 
London, is engaged in lecturing on subjects of Egyptian history 
and archaeology. She has edited Murray's Hand-Book for. 
Egypt, translated and annotated Brugsch's "Egypt under the 
Pharaohs," and prepared a very useful American edition of 
Mariette's "Outlines of Egyptian History** (Scribner of New 
York), which I have commended as a book for students and 
reference. The same enthusiasm which developed an Amelia 
B. Edwards into an Egyptologist can inspire many an American 
woman to turn her talents and acquisitions Nile-ward, The art 
side alone is a fascinating investigation; besides which, the deft 
female fingers would transfer the text in a nicer and more rapid 
form than would or do many ot the male hieroglyphists. It is 
not generally known how much Dr. Naville is indebted to his 
wife tor her skill as a draughtsman, of which his volume on 
"Goshen" is a marked instance. 

Thk next Congress of Orientalists will do Egyptology a 
good service if it takes steps to have established a consensus ot 
opinion respecting the spelling of many words and proper 
names, particularly, in the former case, ot words in which the 
second vowel is supplied, and in names like Hatasu and Thoth- 
mes. I reter chiefly to the general use of textual and other 
word* rather than to their scholarly use in critical and elaborate 
articles. The vocabularly is, however, receiving the constant 
study of the disciples of the schools ot Brugsch and Erman; 
Prolessor Hess, ot Freibourg, has been doing important work 
upon a papyrus, partly in Demotic, in the British Museum; and 
Dr. Steindortl has been restudving the hieroglyphic text with 
special reference to phonology. This, by the way, lets us re- 
mark that the theory of recent date that there were no homo- 
phones in the early alphabet receives confirmation from an 
investigation by Professor Hommel as to the supposed two 
interchangeable signs tor >\ The analogy ot some Semitic 
letter* »hows that these signs represented two distinct sounds. 
Dr. Krman has added his testimony to that ot Dr. Hommel. 

Rki.akpim; the Grol ctliection ot Grsrco- Egyptian portrait*, 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION. 171 

I am struck with the words of Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, who f in 
remarking that the ethnologist looks to Egypt for explanations 
of mortuary customs, says that the mask was placed over the 
face of the deceased to transform him into a spirit, just as the 
youth who dons the mask in a sacred dance becomes the god 
whom he personifies. On ethnological grounds, this is a good 
reason; but a still stronger one, and the most human or natural, 
was that of affection; and so the Greek in Egypt used his skill 
and his love of beauty in painting portraits that to-day are fall 
of life, character, and an entrancing subtlety. Dr. O. W . Holmes, 
viewing with me the collection when exhibited in Boston, said 
of the famous "No. 45" (the portrait of a girl), "I have just 
seen her face on Washington street," to which I replied, "Or 
coming out of a symphony concert." 

Tub glad bit of news comes this week that Volume II of 
"Beni Hasan" is published and en route to the Smithsonian for 
distribution. The ethnologists who read the American Anti- 
quarian should study the facial illustrations in this book. 



PALESTINE EXPORATION. 
By Theodore F. Wright. 

The railway now in process of construction from Haifa, near 
Mount Carmel, to Damascus will be of much greater com- 
mercial importance than the line to Jerusalem, which is rather 
for the transport of travelers than of merchandise. As the 
means of landing at Haila are superior to those at Jaffa, so the 
country to be reached is more productive. It is not unlikely 
that the beautiful and salubrious neighborhood of the Sea of 
Galilee, once so populous, now nearly deserted, will be opened 
to fresh settlement, and that the plain of Genneseret, along the 
western shore of that sea, will again be covered with grain 
fields. Beyond, of course, the railway will reach Damascus, 
the principal city of western Asia, and will at once displace the 
trains of camels which are now the means of conveying mer- 
chandise from the shops of Damascus toward Egypt and the 
west. Of course I do not overlook the road for wagons over 
the twin ranges of the Lebanon to Beyrout, but it is a very slow 
and laborious and expensive way tor freight and will not com- 
pete with the railway. 

To the archaeologists the construction of this railwav is very 
important, because the managers have taken the Palestine 
Exploration Fund under its protection and will give its agents 
every facility in prosecuting their work. In the presence of the 
constructing parties it will be safe to do much important work 



172 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

in the vicinity of the line, and it is not unlikely that valuable 
discoveries will be made by the very digging which will be 
done for the sake of the railway, especially a little later on when 
thejordan valley is reached. 

The completion of a contract with E. E. Howell, of Washing- 
ton, D. C, to reproduce in this country the contour or relief 
map ol Palestine, which attracted so much attention at the Ex- 
position, makes usetul a careful description of it. It is con- 
structed on the same scale as those of the Old and New 
Testament Maps already issued by the Society. These were 
reduced from the scale of the large map (i inch to the mile) to 
}i of an inch to the mile, or the fraction of ,J^, . The levels, 4s 
calculated by the engineers who triangulated the country, of 
whom Mr. Armstrong was one from the commencement to the 
end, are followed exactly. No other correct raised map of the 
country is possible, because the Survey of Palestine is copyright 
and belongs to the committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. 
Without raising the question of piracy, however, no other trust- 
worthy raised map is at all likely to be attempted, because the 
knowledge of the country requisite can only be possessed by 
one who has stepped over every foot of it, and because the 
labor which Mr. Armstrong has given to the work— extending 
over many years — will scarcelv be expended by any other per- 
son, now or in the future. This labor will be partly under- 
stood when it is explained that the map was prepared by the 
super-position ot small pieces of cardboard, many thousands in 
number, cut so as to represent the lie of the country, and laid 
one above the other. The work occupied all Mr. Armstrong's 
leisure time for seven years. In its unfinished state the map 
presents the appearance of a completely terraced country. It 
embraces the whole of western Palestine, from Baalbeck, in the 
north, to Kadesh Barnea, in the south, and stums nearly all that 
is known on the east of Jordan. The natural features of the 
country stand out prominently, and show at a glance the relative 
proportions of the mountains, heights, valleys, plains, etc. The 
seas, lakes, marshes and perennial streams are shown in blue; 
the watercourses on the plains and main roads are marked by 
a grooved line; the Uld and New Testament sites in red, and 
the hills and plains in white. Towns are numbered to corres- 
pond with a reference list of names. 

With this map before him the teacher or the student is enabled 
to follow the Bible narrative exactly; he can trace the route of 
armies; he can reconstruct the roads; he can understand the 
growth and the decay of cities, their safety or their dangers, 
from their geographical positions. It is a magnificent addition 
to the many works which this Society has given to the world. 
It illustrates the practical usefulness of the Society, while it adds 
one more to its achievements in the cause of illustration and 
explanation ot the Bible Lands. 



EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND. 178 

The map should be in every public library and every public 
school and every Sunday school. Its price is necessarily high, 
because the work is most costly to produce. It measures seven 
leet six inches by four feet, and can be seen at 612 Seventeenth 
street N. W. v Washington. The map is cast in fibrous plaster; 
it is colored, and framed solidly; it is despatched in a wooden 
box, for which no extra charge is made. It is warranted to 
travel safely. The price is $55. The price in England, includ- 
ing boxing, is about the same, and in addition the American 
purchaser must pay freight and duty. Mr. Howell's reputation 
is such, and his engagement so clearly requires the excellence 
of this work to be equal to that of any work by him exhibited 
by the United States Geological Survey or others, at Chicago, 
that there is no reason to doubt that the arrangement will prove 
satisfactory to all. 

As to the work next to be undertaken in Palestine, I may say 
that a firman or permit is eagerly expected from the Turkish 
government, and that, as soon as It is granted, a very important 
work will be undertaken.. The account of the work at Lachish 
is about to be published by MacMillan & Co., fully illustrated. 

Latkr. — The firman for two years* excavation at Jerusalem 
has been granted. 



SUBSCRIPTIONS TO THE EGYPT EXPLORATION 
FUND AND ITS SURVEY FUND. 

To the Editor of the American Antiquarian : 

The following subscriptions to the Fund since March 20th 

are gratefully acknowledged: 

G. K. Hillings, Es<i % 5.00 

Carlos \V. Shane, hs*| 5 .00 

Rev. lames Carter 5 .00 

Miss Elizabeth Almv Slatle 5.00 

JOHN S. KENNEDY. Es<> 25.00 

Sirs. William C. Wendte $.00 

Tin Vkry Kfv. Df.an K. A. HOFKMAN, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D 2$. 00 

Mrs. I. H. Thnrmiike S°° 

Rev. (iilbert K. Williams 5.00 

Rev. C. D. IWadlce. I >.!>.. Ph.D 5.00 

Albert Aub, Kmj 5 00 

Mr*. Arthur W. Hen sou 5 .00 

Mrs. Thomas E. Tootle 5 00 

Prof. Angus Crawford 5.00 

F. W. Porter, Kvj 5.00 

\V. A. Mew art. h**| 5.00 

Mrs. James li. Ames 10.00 

ALEXANDER MacWHORTER MEMORIAL 25.00 

Mrs. c;EORc;E I). PHELPS 25.00 

LEWIS A. SO >TT. E.sq 25.00 

Rev. Edmund R. Wo*xlmaii 5.00 

Enoch Lewi*, E*j 10.00 



174 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

From March 20th to date I have received, very thankfully, 
these subscriptions to the Archaeological Survey Fund: 

Rev. James Carter $ 5 . 00 

The Very Rev. Dean K. A. Hoffman, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D 10. 00 

Albert Aub, Ksq 5.00 

Mrs. Thomas K. Tootle 5.00 

W. A. Stewart. Ksq 5 00 

Mrs. James H. Ames 5 .00 

Lewis A. Srott, Ksq 5 00 

Enoch Lewis, Kvj 5.00 

As this is the initial acknowledgment in this magazine, thanks 
to its friendly editor, who is an honorary secretary ot this society, 
I will state our terms ot subscription: 

All donors or subscribers to the season's explorations of $5 or 
upward receive the illustrated quarto volume of the season. 
Previous volumes can be had. It is hoped that all who can will 
subscribe liberally to the cause lor itselt. 

Patrons contribute not less than $25, with the privilege to 
withdraw from the list at any time. 

Survey Fund subscribers of not less than $5 receive the survey 
volume of the season and annual report. 

The Archaeological Report, a valuable illustrated brochure^ 
issued each summer, is sent free to our subscribers. It is to 
precede the elaborate volume, informing the reader of the "latest 
results/' with summaries of archaeological news, notes ol books, 
etc., etc. It has been truly said that no other archaeological 
or historical society in the world gives so much for a five-dollar 
subscription. The Atlas is described in "Notes." We have no 
endowment. Will our readers aid this good cause of ethnology, 
anthropology, archeology and history? Circulars gratuitously 
furnished. Wm. C\ Winslow, Honorary Treasurer, 

April 20, 1894. 525 Iteacon Street, Boston. 



WAS THERE CONTACT WITH ASIATIC COUNTRIES? 175 



Editorial. 



WAS THKRK CONTACT WITH ASIATIC COUNTRIES? 

r 1 1 1-: I LKIHANT TKl NK AND AMM W -HEADl.t) THRONE. 

The subject of contact with Asiatic countries has come up 
many times, and many arguments in favor of it have been brought 
out, the similarity of the symbols having given rise to the 
thought. Some of the symbols, however, have been misinter- 
preted, and really weaken the argument rather than strengthen 
it. Among these we shall place the elephant's trunk as first, for 
this has been seized upon by many writers to prove the antiquity 
of man in America, or to show contact with Asiatic countries in 
prehistoric times. The tact is, however, that no such elephant's 
trunk exists in America, either as a symbol or an ornament ; and 
it is somewhat doubtful whether even the elephant pipes which 
were discovered in the Mississippi Valley are genuine. We refer 
to it at this time because it is important to separate the true from 
the false, and so prepare the way for the stronger argument in 
the future. We believe that the argument is strong enough 
without this. 

The first writer to point out the elephant's trunk was Waldcck, 
who imagined that he had discovered it as an ornament in the 
hieroglyphics at Palenque. Charnay, however, has visited this 
region and examined the hieroglyphics, and declares that there 
is no such elephant's trunk in any hieroglyphic in Mexico or 
Central America, and expressed surprise that Waldeck should 
have represented that there was. He asks the question, What 
end did he propose to himself in giving this fictitious represen- 
tation of the Katuncs in the panel of the temple of inscriptions? 
Neithe; Catherwood, who drew the inscriptions, nor myself, who 
brought impressions of them away, nor living man, ever saw 
these elephants or their fine trunks. A theory might be started 
with respect to the probable Asiatic origin of the Toltec tribes, 
of the influence of Japanese civilization, but not from the dis- 
covery of any elephant trunks, but rather from the resemblance 
of the architecture found in the various temples. 

Another writer who has been relied upon as proving that the 
elephant's trunk was used as an ornament is Stephens, and the 
figure w hich we have already given in the cut, which represents the 
tablet found upon the facade of the palace at Palenque, is given as 
proof. The figure, however, when analyzed, does not prove to 
be a trunk at all. but a divided staff or vine, the usual sign of 
speech, though it might be taken for such at first sight. We call 



m THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

attention to the figure, and especially to the shape of the symbol 
<>r ornament above the face, and, by way of explanation, would 
refer to the custom, which was very common among the ancient 
kings of Palenquc, to wear a casque or helmet, in the shape of 
an animal's head, but connect with it certain other symbols. 
Many such helmets or casques can be seen in the bas-reliefs at 
Chichen-ltza, Kabah and Palenquc, also in the portrait columns 
at Copan. Stephens* also has described one as in the hands at 
the seated figure in the elliptical tablet in the palace at Palcnque. 
Here "the principal figure sits cross-legged on a couch orna- 
mented with two leopards' heads; the attitude is easy, the physi- 
ognomy the same as that <>f the other personages, the expression 
calm and benevolent. The figure wears around its neck a neck- 
lace of pearls, to which is suspended a small medallion contain- 
ing a face ; perhaps intended as an image of the sun. Like 
every other subject of sculpture we had seen in the country, the 
|>ersonage had ear rings, bracelets on the wrists, and a girdle 
around the loins. The head dress differs from most of the 
others at Palcnque in that it wants the plumes of feathers." The 
other figure, which seems that of a woman, is sitting cross-legged 
on the ground, richly dressed, and is presenting the casque to 
the figure on the throne. 

It might be further stated that Charnay discovered at Palcn- 
que three figures which had been covered with calcareous coat- 
ing, and which were very fresh, one of which was seated in 
Turkish fashion ami had a costume identical with the one in the 
oval tablet, a beautiful collar around the neck, a cape like that 
worn it the present day. bracelets, dress below the girdie like 
the cape The head-dress was a kind of miter covered with 
bars like those in one ol the portrait statues furnished with a 
tuft of feathers. The figure is seated, and was |>ointing towards 
the otandiu,; figure in the center. We would also by way of 
Lontrast rJer to the plate which has been loaned to us by the 
publishers of the World's Parliament of Religions and which 
represents the elephant :do] or elephant god of the Hindoos. It 
will be noticed that this idol is dressed or ornamented with neck- 
la* e, collar, wristlets, anklets and head-dress, which resemble 
those on sutn<- ot the figures at (''-pan, and that it is surrouded 
bv .1 sen* s i.f figures somewhat as the idols in Central America 
are, but it has .1 genuine elephant's head and trunk which has 
no resemMame t-» the ornament on the figure at Palenquc. It 
w.ll be noticed hiith*. r that there are four hands on cither side of 
the id-*'; one ••! th» m carries the na^a. another a globe, another 
!•■:;! .irrows, another a babble, another a baton, and so on. There 
i> n t an AnuTn.aii -vmbol ab-.;t :t I lie multiplicity of hands 
brings up .1 p .int. Are there any :d »ls or figures in America 



WA9 THERE CONTACT WITH ASIATIC COUNTRIES? 177 

which have more than two hands? In reference to this, we 
would refer to the idol of the geddess of death in the museum 
of Mexico, for we shall find that here there are four hands, two 
above the skull and two below, though they can hardly be com- 
pared to the arms and hands which are a characteristic of the 
images or idols of Buddha. Sec frontispiece. 

The elephant's trunk has, however, been recognized by many 
in the so-called Chinese hook, which is a common ornament in 
the facades at Chichcn-Itza, Kabah, and at Mitla. The hook is 
sometimes seen at the corners of the buildings, and sometimes 
projects from the wall, but is attended with many sculptured 
ornaments on the face of the wall. It is supposed to have 
resemblance to the Japanese or Chinese ornament which some- 
times adorns the pagodas, but there is one peculiarity about the 
hook, especially that seen on the faqade or ornamented wall at 
Kabah. Here the hook in every case projects from a peculiar 
ornament, which resembles in its general contour the human 
face, the eyes of which are sunken into the wall, and which are 
always seen on either side of the hook. This hidden face is one 
of the most novel and interesting features in the Maya archi- 
tecture. It is not always as highly ornamented as at Kabah, but 
can, nevertheless, be seen as a prominent symbol in the orna- 
mentation of many of the facades, as well as on the altars and in 
the back of the statues, and on the tablets and elsewhere, though 
seldom attended with the hook as at Kabah. The reader will find 
such a face in the ornaments seeu on the facades of the Casa 
de Monjas, at Uxmal. Here it surmounts the miniature hut in 
which the idol is enshrined. The eyes and nose are plainly 
visible. He will find it also in the rock inscriptions at Chiriqui, 
and Nijapa, being here plainly visible. It was a common hiero- 
glyphic, and suggests the idea that there was an esoteric system 
in vogue throughout Central America, which had for its support 
and perpetuity a secret society or an order of priests, which per- 
petuated the symbols and kept the forms and faces of the divin- 
ities constantly before the people. 

The same may be said of the coil. It was one of the sym- 
bols of the nature powers — the concentric circle, signifying 
the sun, the arch signifying the sky, and the coil and divided 
staff signifying the wind. What is more, the coil is often 
seen in the hidden manitou faces, giving expression to the 
eye, and sometimes forming the ear. It is a very common 
symbol, was worn upon the breast of Tlaloc, is seen issuing 
from the mouth of other divinities, and is called the comma. It 
seems to be a symbol peculiar to America, and yet there may 
be a clue furnished by it which will lead us to the distant 
nations. The ornament called the Chinese hook quickly reminds 
us of the ornament seen upon the Chinese pagodas, just as the 
turbans on the figures which are seated in Turkish fashion on 



ITS TIIK AMKRK'AN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the altar at Copan, remind us of the Tartar costume; anil the 
symbol of the revolving sun on the oval or egg-like altar at 
Copan reminds us of the Chinese Tai Kai ; as the double-headed 
throne, on which is seated the divinity, reminds us of the god- 
dess Kali, who is often represented as sitting on a throne which 
had animal heads like this; and as certain statues remind us of 
Buddha in their attitude. 

Shall we follow these analogies? The law of parallel devel- 
opement dues not explain them. We abandon the elephant's 
trunk. We shall not insist upon the Chinese hook. Hut we will 
ask some of rnir readers who claim the autochthonous origin of 
everything in Antcriu, to explain the globe and the animal- 
headed throne, the attitude and expression ol the idol which is 
now in the Trocadero museum at Paris, which is pronounced by 
Dr. Ilamy a representation of (Juct/atlcoatl. seated cross-legged 




as is Ifuddh.i in In- image-, an. I especially the position of the 
animal-headed throne and th" pi. oi to the s-.Ntitiil -nn and the 
temple, and the pe. uhai ■■ruination of th- temple- a- i- umpired 
\ulh tin- pali.es 

We would .*'.»> asl. them !>■ jiC-'init for the spread of the 
*u.i«tik.i or Hindoo lii. g-n.r.itoi.as well a- the Mali, -e cro-s 
These are found all ■ .v.-c the <■.(■.!■ in ointin-nt m Lenities as f.ir 
apirt as 1.,'vpt and I'inin, 1l;n 1 > >-t in an 1 S -in l.ntv: i, and in 
t>ie wcsl.-rn c mtin.-nt in lo.i'te-. a- fir apirt as I'ionda and 
New Mexi- ., t Hi-... .,n 1 i , i t t-m i! i T:i • -uasiik . from the Hope- 
well mouri I- exhume-l by W. K M -or. head, may Ik- post-Cn- 
I u Indian or pr ■ C-.ii imb tn. Sli iw:i>- or M <und builder it rtut- 
t-r. not.' i mnv ijivitnrn- o| tit ■ *iim- -.vmbol w *r- discovered 
in the m ' i-ul- an I m th- -! me •r.^-> before Mr Mo .reheat! 
cune up hi h.» ::np >r! in! tin ! In - d stnhuti.ri of :1ns expres- 

,.Ve sym'i .1 :- »'i i .::.p:C :n,i- l\< \\ '. ::iipn--e- th'lM.' who have 

n> -p cia; .i ;;iisv.in:- w "h .rvh.i-o'. >.;.-. .ml rails l.utli fre- 
;l-nt » srprn- I"; .'. I ; ll W ''•}• ::i. m-al.W'i in S.lil.f 
tint lett'-r-. w.T- -mi t> h n I: - > n s'nru'i.;. Cnun. and from 
M >n:.m i di i*iii.; tin', th- -in- -vn't >'. is am mj the mystic 
i h n'-«- iliara..:-!-, the -Wan .ne.ni -it,* the "Ym^ Yarn' or 



WAS THERK CONTACT WITH ASIATIC C0UKTRIK8? 170 

"Tai Kai," and in Scandinavia where Thor's hammer is repre- 
sented as a suastika. 

The same may be said of the priestly costume, which consists 
of a Icopird, lion or tiger skin, either thrown over the shoulders 
or worn around the waist; a costume which is nearly as wide- 
spread and as conspicuous as the symbol of the suastika seen 
on the Egyptian monuments, recognized in the tablets of Central 
America, occasionally found in the rare relics taken from the 
mounds of Ohio. 

We may say of both of these articles, the suastika symbol, 
and the priestly dress, that they arc lound scattered along a line 
or belt ot latitude which has been frequently discussed as pre- 
senting many similar specimens, and as a probable line of com- 
munication, possibly of migration, in prehistoric times; the belt 
in which the sun worshipping tribes have dwelt, from time 
immemorial. It is claimed that the law of parallel develop- 
ment requires the symbol of the cross, and the revolving wheel 
and the fire generator to accompany sun worship ; but the 
common sense solution of this problem does not come from 
forcing any theory to such severe conclusions. It is more rea- 
sonable to suppose that symbols were spread from one center 
to another, than to conjecture that they originated in so many 
different centers. The burden of proof, therefore, rests upon 
those who hold the autochthonous theory. 

Those facts are coming before us more and more which may 
furnish the clue, and we seem to be rapidly approaching to a 
solution of the problem, but the largest liberty must be allowed 
until the solution is reached. The archaeologists will not put 
any discredit upon ethnologists, even if they hold to the oppos- 
ite opinion, though it is more reasonable that new languages 
would arise than that the same symbols should arise in new 
regions, or that new inventions would appear in so many widely 
separated centers. 

o 

WAS THERE AN AMERICAN COSTUME? 

* F.KI-M«»M \t. Co-TLMK AND OFFICIAL KFoAI.IA. 

The subject o( attire is very suggestive. Was there an Amer- 
ican costume which we can say was indigenous; or was there 
such a variety of costume as to prove that each tribe and nation 
adopted a costume to suit their circumstances, or is it the 
Asiatic costume which we so frequently come in contact with 
and which strikes our attention because of its contrast with the 
European costume? Any one who has noticed the great differ- 
ence between the native dress of the ordirary hunter Indian, 
when uncivilized, and the appearance of the same Indian when 
civilized and in European clothes, would at once say that the 



180 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Asiatic and the European have changed places, for the native 
costume is certainly much more Asiatic than European. At 
least, the official regalia of priests was quite similar to that 
which is common in the East. 

The official regalia of the chiefs and kings presents more var- 
iety, but by comparing the American and Asiatic we find those 
analogies which lead us to the same conclusion as do the sym- 
bols, that even this native costume in much of its details may 
have been borrowed from the Asiatics. This is more apparent 
in the southwest provinces than in the northern, as the northern 
climate required more protection and closer fitting costume*, 
yet we find the same separation in the different articles of dress, 
and the same ornamenting ot the person with necklaces, wrist- 
lets, anklets, belts, kilts, pouches, head-dresses, in the various 
parts of the continent. So that the picture of a dancing figure 
taken from the mounds would very well represent the costume 
of a dancer in a sacred feast in almost any other part of the 
country. The examination of the prehistoric relics with this 
thought in mind, brings out the point quite clearly. In the re- 
gions of which we have spoken, the resemblance between the 
personal ornaments and official regalia is quite close, especially 
if we consider the difference in the grade of progress or stage of 
civilization. Here the head-dresses, collars, kilts, girdles, san 
dais or moccasins, are all separate, in fact as separate as a Scotch 
plaid or scarf, kilt or cap are from one another, the bracelets, 
wristlets and anklets are always in the same place and in similar 
shapes. This is the cane in the northwest coast among the 
Tinneh, in the eastern parts among the Iroquois, in the central 
parts among the Mandans, as well as among the M*>und builders 
and among the South Sea tribes. Shall we ca'l this the Ameri- 
can costume and make it distinctive, or shall we trace the re- 
semblance* to the Asiatic coasts .\m\ especially to the Polynesian 
islands, and say that it was borrowed?* 

The subject of ceremonial costume a- associated v\ :th the official 
Use of common weapons suggests another top:.-, name !y. the dif 
ference between the common attire and the officii! regalia. We 
take it up as the subject ot this paper, and shall ask. first, 
whether there was such uniformity in jn/rsonal attire .h to say 
that there was any American costume, second, was there any 
such uniformity in the- official re 'alia as to sav that thi* was 
lopventtonal. and third, was there any sikIi comparison b.tween 

• | i |. i '• i .■ ' i !•-■-.«• I r*< i-i t >l. I I: «- « a-. •■! i*. J'i%l • .!■- ! -i !*■** * *r* . I J I -. 

t t ;. -. . ■• r- • v ■ ■ I ■ • r" !•. ' »•.» i . ! nj ' r i i r »» ti I* • \ j) 

»■ .*!•'. If. . •■ !• ■•' *' i ■■!■•;■•■ '*-' . l <-?•?«( 1*t«1fl !■ c 

y ', :ff ,^ » * ■ :: t» • ' »■ ■ ifi, ■, .■•• i;. ! 4 ;■ if » u '. - *• .ri. It.ft 

j- '1 " •- a -.t ir. 1, , ju'i.- • ' * **. \ •• ■• « *:n »■ * !■■•». ' t K-i fjVrt \ »» 

\\ 1 . M ■ • » *»' »i. 1 ■ < t. •" c !■" • iii * ' 1 1 '.,' i-f » 1 •«* i ••'!■» »r • 5 

1 « * : i»r»- :• [ • • ■ • 1. *. m «- » tt . ! : 1 ■■ -. 11 ' (• nt 1 jt I - *-: n «• « • - !• >l 

* - 1. *M '■ ■ rfr ! ! f w m\- »■ ;. t. fc ' * re r.*^ ■ *t£ ti4 u V.» '<" at. I t % )r*. • 4 

,*.»r ■ •■ •■ ■ r rf?!«. hi ! " •■ J. i- J «i !".•:• !■ ■ • t' •.-< ti.lfi'n'i '« ■ .♦! '»f 
r*r . * »■? 1 * 1!' '. if . -! t.f 



WA8 THKRE AN AMERICAN C06TUME? 1*1 

the ceremonial costumes found in this country and those seen in 
Polynesia and eastern Asia as to say that it was transmitted. 

I. In order to illustrate this point we shall describe the different 
attire of the chiefs and medicine men among the hunter tribes, 
such as the Mandans and Sioux, and the mountain tribes, such 
as the Navajos, and then take up the attire ot the civilized 
tribes. The pictures depicted by Catlin illustrate this. In these 
f>amtings a Crow chief had a figure of a crow on his head. Four 
Hears, chief of the Mandans, had a head-dress of eagle feathers, 
horns of buffalo, necklace of birds' claws, moccasins of buck- . 
skin, leggings of deer-skin, shield of buffalo hide, bow of bone, 
quiver of panther-skin, lance of ash, ornamented with quills, 
tobacco sack of otter-skin, a pipe of red steatite, notched to show 
the years of his life, belt of buck-skin, medicine bag of beaver. 
Another chief, a medicine man, called the Old Bear, had eagle 
calumets in each hand, a fox-skin in front of his body, and fox 
tails attached to his heels, moccasins, leggings and head-dress, all 
of them significant. The medicine man was the most grotesquely 
decorated and dressed He was covered with the skin of a yellow 
bear, the head of which served as a mask; the huge claws ot 
which also were dangling on his wrists and ankles ; in one hand 
he shook a frightful rattle, and in the other brandished his med- 
icine spear or magic wand; to the rattling din and discord of all 
of which he added the wild and startling jumps and yells of the 
Indian and the horrid and appalling grunts and snarls and growls 
of the grizzly bear, in ejaculatory and guttural incantations to 
the good and bad spirits in behalf of his patient, who was rolling 
and groaning in the agonies of death, whilst he was dancing 
around him, jumping over him, and pawing him about, and roll- 
ing him in every direction. It was unusual to have the dress so 
completely emblematic as this, yet the wild Indian hunters often 
wore upon their person those articles which could be easily 
recognized as symbols by all who saw them. In some cases the 
symbols would be a personal or a clan totem, in the shape of a 
bird, worn upon the head. In other cases it would be a knife 
upon the head and a number of feathers upon the spear, the 
feathers signifying the number of persons he had slain in battle. 
Sometimes the robe of skin would be emblazoned with pictures 
of all the battles he had fought, would be the chart of his military 
life. 

This personal decoration of the medicine man illustrates an im- 
portant feature of all religious symbols. The priests are generally 
so clothed with the symbols of their office that the form of 
religion which they are serving can be recognized in their dress. 
This is as true of the historic as of the prehistoric religions, but 
in the prehistoric religions of America is especially important. 
It needs only a little closer study of the priests* dress and the 
symbols contained in them to ascertain the nature of their re- 



1K2 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ligions. Thi^ is illustrated by the figure of the priests in the 
families on the temple at r.ilenque, Honduras. It is still better 
illustrated in the sculptures of Santa Lucia Cosumalhuapa. In 
these sculptures we have a variety of figures arranged in pairs, 
the figures at) >ve to represent the divinity, the figures below to 
represent the suppliant t«» the divinity. In one we have the su*i 
divmitv above, represented by a head protruding from a ring, 
two coiled serpents, with rattles and forked tongues, ab >vc the 
head; disks fur rings in the ears, heavy necklace or collar made 
of stones below the head; a peculiar scarf falling from the chin; 
across the necklace, made up of knots and bows, disks or globes; 
from the globe descend bands with incisions, which are full of 
symbols, and stones which are also symbolic; to the necklace 
were attached the twining, vine like ornament-*, on whicli are 
rosettes, medallions, knots, leaves and flowers. The fact that 
the human f.ice protrude* through the circular disk or ring, 
which resembles the moon, and th.it the m< daliion has a picture 
of the lull m«»(»n on it, leads to the belief that this is the moon 
goddess In the lower pait of this sculpture is th* figure ol a 
|>erson with lace upturned and uplifted hand, imploring the 
divinity. The brea.st is adorned with a glooe, the li.iir with a 
disk, around the n^ht wrist is a plain ctiti. the left hand is 
covered by a skull ; the girdle lias a boar's head for m\ ornament, 
fiom the front of the girdle, two twisted cords around the thigh, 
tied with a bow and tassi 1. fa : Img between the legs. In front is 
a small altar, on which is a human head, from the mouth of 
which issues a curved -tat: 

Head-dressrs were sometimes us» d .1- kmglv regalia, .is will 
as clan emblems Many h<ad -dre^- - in tiie dupe of masks 
were worn in dames. Am^ng th« I & : ■ . t : * i tribe-* these masks 
were in the shap» of birds heads, l» :rfYo h-il^ .mi \io;v«'V 
heads. They show the animal t'-tenii oi t'.i-- p-- -iple, th idea 
oftentimes In in-/ that the spirit ■■! th- .•:■ sn i" ::ai la:ilv taken 
possessimi of ti.e danger-, and th ■ a!?iTa !■• «■! :':■ vi'lil ». wolf 
or otliei ammal was .i"-i:m- d :n thr duice, II t<! .!n^.-, w.-rc 
worn by chiefs, with h-m-* • >t *i .: tf'.t!* ». « Ik «»r !*er pr i.-ttm^ abtive 
the head. lh<^ may 1 1 . i \ • * b n h »r is -f po.wr. j>.it g« nera'iy 
they were c.ai\ si; ns m totems. :ndi. itm_; :h»- can to wh: h the 
chief belonged. > -M.ctmies th horns would be tattomd «>n the 
face, liny wer- f: ■ ■;ue:it!y p! i ■ ■■ ! «-:i th ■ iihi !■■ ol the lodge* 
and o ia*i->n.il!v • ■:! th'- • a*-: ;•.* o! :l: h ».i ■">.*. Ihe-e horn 
heads wi-ie not s.i m*.:«_li , : t :t s\ mjj ; . . 4 s * I .in s»vmhols. vet they 
show whether ] •■ ■ -j»Ic- w«i h .ut- rs .ir* ! ,in;in.i! wt»rshijx:rs, or 
agriculturists .md s-.u wordi.;* rs. nr viil.iger* ami -tar worship- 
ers, <»r belong' il to the s.i c i le ! . :■. . . -e i ti.h.'s. as the different 
grades of societv were irtd. .t- •! \\ tie m as w.II ,n l»v the other 
ornaments ,i::d .KC-.utremf.nts. 

The necklace was also an • ftki.il ^rnanunt. This was worn 



WAS THERE AN AMERICAN COSTUME? 1*3 

both by male and female; by the females mainly as an ornament; 
bv the males as an emblem of honor or as a clan totem, some- 
tunes as a craft symbol. There are necklaces which are made 
up of bear'* teeth ami bone beads. There are others which have 
human finger* suspended to the string; others which have medal- 
lions, some of them with portraits upon them; these arc historic. 
Occasionally a necklace will have a medicine bag attached to it, 
hanging on the breast. Others will have pearls, translucent 
stones, copper tubes, turquoises. The necklaces of the civilized 
tnl>es are more elaborate and more significant than those of the 
uncivilized. Some of these remind us of the necklaces which 
were worn by the gods and goddesses of India, for they arc 
made up of skulls or of imiges of skulls; others of them have 
medallions hanging at the center of the necklace, some of them 
being covered with the svmbols of the sun. others with faces, 
portraits perhaps of individuals or pictures of gods. Necklaces 
were not often used as craft symbols, yet they were at times in- 
dicative of the class to which one belonged, either the warrior, 
clan elder, the priestly class, or the ruler or chief. Necklaces 
show the grades of civilization, as well as the personal rank and 
wealth of the individual ; though mainly ornamental, they are 
also symbolic. 

Collars are often seen upon the shoulders of the divinities of 
Mexico. Some of them are verv wide and elaborate. There 
are collars on the dancing figures inscribed on the copper plates 
which remind us of the Aztecs. Charnay has described the 
collars which were found upon the sculptured figures at Lorillard 
City and M. I label has described those found in Gautemala. 
Collars may be seen upon the figures of the priest in the facade 
of the temple of Palcnque. Medallions are generally found over- 
lapping these collars. Figures which have collars, breast-plates 
and other symbols have been described by Bishop Bell of Kansas, 
though their antiquity may be questioned. 

The leggings, girdles, shirts and mantles, as well as head- 
dresses, were often symbolic. It is noticeable that the tunic or 
slrrt ami the mantle or cloak of the Romans. Greeks, Assyrians, 
lews and Kgyptians find their counterpart in the hunting shirt 
and fi:r «»r skin mantle »>f the aborigines of America. These 
were worn by the hunter* as well as by the medicine men, and 
wcrt iomm«>:i articles of clothing, but became afterward the 
symbols of th.- priestly office; lor the priests in Mexico, Central 
Ann r;« a, A^yiia and Kgvpt are always represented as being 
clad :n a mantle made of animal skins — tiger, leopard, bear, or 
s'.m«- *tlur .imm.ll 

Tin: g r«i!e was also an article of dress which became official. 
This girdle was used by the hunter for the purpose of carrying 
hit knife, his m< dsunc bag, his tobacco pouch and pipe. The 
girdles ot the Mexicans became so symbolic that the priests are 



1*4 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

represented as wearing the most elaborate kinds, and carrying 
suspended to them all kinds of ornaments. The moccasin and 
leggings were not so symbolic as the girdle or mantle, yet the 
moccasin was used as a symbol of his clan by the hunter. It 
differed from the sandal of the Cliff dwellers, and the sandal of 
the Cliff dweller differed from the footwear of the Mexicans, 
showing that the clan emblem and national life, the social grade, 
as well as the office and rank, were all to be learned from a study 
of the footwear as well as the head-dress. This is illustrated bv 

• 

the leggings of the Navajo Indian who was dressed and adorned 
to look like one of the N.ivajo divinities called Dsilyi Neyani 
(after his toilet in the house of the butterflies). The legs and 
fore-arms were painted black to represent the storm cloud, with 
white zigzag streaks to represent the lightning. Small objects 
to represent wings were tied to the arms, downy eagle feathers 
to the hair. Necklaces of coral and collars of beaver skins hung 
around the necks, a girdle of disks around the body, a fawn-skin 
b.ig filled with cornmeal in one hand, plumed wands with the 
shaft of different colors, to represent the north and south, in the 
other hand This figure shows that every article of dress was at 
times regarded as symbolic, even the colors were symbols of the 
nature powers. I Ic was a me^sen^er to call the people to the 
sacred dances. He followed the lightning trail to the house 
inside ot a black mountain. This house was two stories high 
and had four doorways, which were covered with trees for doors. 
The trees of different colors, cast, black; north, white; west, 
yellow; south, blue. 



•o- 



I'AI.l n| ITIIK" NOTES. 

The dm 'iftoHin in %ii','. ^oitii* on .1% to the division between the palcohthn 
•* rit I the ncohrhn .i K »r I he ahsoiu e of the potterv from the paleolithic age 
in ftiii>r>oHt'<! to Ik* dittim ti\c, hut the an h.i >>!o^ims arra> themselves ujion 
om' side and the ethnologists <>n the other of thu suhicrt, Professor Mm ft 
l>a*kin». M < artaiihar. M Salomon. M. Kcin.it h. in i-.urope. ami I'm 
!«s-or II W. Il.twie* and others, in this «<>untr\. favoring the distinction. 
and M 1 >M|iont. M. I ><-\adai.!a» . M Fruipont. in l.tiropc.and Dr. Mrinton and 
a ffH others in this • ••u;i*r> on !ne "thrr side. The knowledge of (lottery i% 
dotjhtiul. fi*r she {raiment-, "f potter* di*to\ered in the guatcnary hcd» 
:m^'ht h.i\c hern mtro«ii< i •) through ♦Unrr*. or h\ the a< tions of burrowing 
annuals, 'i;s* a- I'nde^or \\ . H H«-!:r o* • lanns that the re«Ci't» of recent 
uork *hi-|is Here :iitri>du< t d :n the ^ra\r. I*eds :n Anient a. The paleolithic 
a^e ■* li.iuf,; a hard tunc to h • •]< t i»» own. hi:! a single discovery may Kt 
ti e i|iie«t on ba« k. when- it wa<.. or may tir.«cttlc the diMimt:on and leave 
the tw>- a^cs Mi*h«>ut a line between tfic::i. I he *pcciali»ti in that depart- 
ment are doin^' ^-x-d Murk, ami we tr ;*t to their ■ andor and hotioty. It it 
-t 11 an "j-eri •; jesti":;. 



BOOK REVIEWS. 185 



BOOK KE VIEWS. 

H'otM s Parliament of Religions. An Illustrated and Popular Story of 
the World's First Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago, in connec- 
tion with the Columbian Exposition in 1803. Edited bytneftcv. John 
Henry Barrows, D.D. Chicago: The Parliament Publishing Co. 

The great event of the century, from a religious point of view, was the 
holding of a parliament of religions in connection with the Columbian 
Exposition. The parliament has been criticised, and it has been claimed 
by some that it has had an evil influence, especially as some of the foreign 
visitors arrogated so much superiority for their own faiths, and returned to 
their own lands only to draw invidious comparisons. A part of this com- 
placency is due to the adulation which these strangers received at Chicago, 
an adulation which few religionists from this country would expect to receive 
if they were visitors in foreign lands; but the greater part is due to a mis- 
interpretation. It has been said that there were not rive persons in the vast 
assembly who had read the life of Buddha; so it was held that the acquaint- 
ance with his doctrines was proportionately small, the intelligence of the 
vast number of divines having suffered a partial eclipse by a sudden test 
which was applied to a miscellaneous audience. If this is the method of 
judging, and if there was no appreciation of the impartial and liberal spirit 
and of the real intelligence which lay underneath that test, we pity 
the judgment of those professed scholars from foreign lands, for they have 
not the least conception of the character of the American mind. There 
was, to be sure, a smack of old wine when the old learning was exhibited to 
the admiring audiences, but how does this compare with the sparkling water 
which bursts from the fountain in nearly every Christian home in this land? 
Would the women of America change places with the women of India or 
China? Would we exchange the prospects of childhood here with that of 
childhood in the far east? They criticise our beef -eating from a ceremonial 
standpoint, and our institutions from their own old world standpoint; but 
when they make our religion responsible for the evils of society, including 
drunkenness, they give us a rule for judging which does them and their 
system far more damage than ours, for the very evils which are opposed by 
our religion are upheld by theirs. The despised Jew has been heard. He 
is more respectful than the Mohammedan, and more tolerant than the 
Hindoo. Let him he heard. The greatness and influence of Moses is 
defended from In^ersoll attacks by the means. The science of compara- 
tive religions does not favor throwing away all that we have and leveling 
cver\ thing to the dust, but rather the building higher, stronger and better 
the svstnns which wc have, upholding the best elements of faith, and seek- 
ing the truth in all sincerity and candor, wherever it can l>e found. 

This uas the spirit which ruled the parliament. The book is actuated by 
the same spirit. Let it he read. If it is not read, let the engravings be 
studied. ThcM* show that art and architecture have reached a high stage 
in other countries, hut the worship of idols still continues, ami is even 
defended by the leaders of thought. The carved figures on the temple 
walls at Tanjore, the carved bull at Mysore, the Hindoo temple at Oodey- 



\m TIIK AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

|Mirc, the Cnnfm ian temple at Ningpo, the old tower in Fonchow, the tower 
temple at Hong< how, the pavilions at Hankok, Siam t the temple at I'aknatn, 
the pagoda at Mandalav. the bronze statue of Buddha at Kamakura, Japan, 
the Muntoo temples at Tokio, japan, the paneU representing (ianapatti i»\ 
Ha'ahedc. India, arc excellent selei turns to exhibit the "worship in stone," 
which aboumN far and near, and to show what the religious sentiment has 
an omplished there «.i> onl\ one tiling lacking. That is, America should 
have been exhibited a* eminentlv regions. This would have made the 
parliament complete. There was a genius which ruled everything at the 
Worlds I air and which has perpetuated itself in lxx>ks and engraving*, 
but what is to result: Will men settle down to the servitude to Mammon 
again, and forget that art and religion ha\c always been associated? There 
is a progress uhuh should go hcvond politics, and which should throw off 
the bondage of party and sc« t. That progress is to have its free scope 
under the liberty uhuh ;-. ernoyed m America. The awakening of mind 
and the broadening of virion has already begun. A stronger religious faith 
should follow. The itKitras: between these idol* and architectural orna- 
ments, .md the portraits of the living men ami women, is very instructive. 
The winder is that any of the-e mtc ligent looking persons should under- 
take to deiend the worship of idol* or to compare the efTctc systems • »f the 
east with the progies»i\e s\*tem- w!r.< h prevail at the west, for now here do 
we IijhI su h pure -pintua'.itv. 

(".///. tifj'\ Intttif tu.u' >tftt\;tJi iit.i ll't iin<-<><. \U ]. (i. Ilnuruiut, CM <•., 
I.I- I>.. I>< .1 .. et« . Muntrcai Foster. brown *\ Co. 

The learned president ft the Knval v o. :rty of < anada. also ^ecrctarv ol 
the House nf i ommons.it <)i:.iw.i, in publishing th:s in»>n"gra:ii confers .1 
)hmii» upitn a 1 ! win) *cck itifoi nia!:-n re*pei t.ng the -tatus of "Literature. 
I dm ati-'ii and Ai! :. 1 ir.ad.t ' I if st dehv 1 red as a length* address before 
the So* lety. t 1- n«-w ivr:- bed w:th .i «i.p;.»i.s »cr;es «.| h:bhograph:i a! .n.d 
t r.Tn a I r.otc* « ? .;ri .it \ .1" .e. 'I hi- <,ii.iMu i-f nvrr . -ne hu rid red pages, w tth 
astonishing t«rc» *\ \« 1 '-iU'e^s, w.*b 1 1 1 » i ■ h de!.u* vet 10 ht?!c phiio%i»phn 
^•eru r il/a*-"ti. .if! with a plea -in., st\ |<« ( t« - i -e vet fl ow n-g, w'.l l»e we'e »*llle 
to ifi.mv a*. Ai:ier:ran n ad* t. w'«i. we regret to a\. is usuallv :n great 
igr.orar.i e o' wt..t! ...r < i:.ad- i». ■■rethn 11 have dt-t.e. or are a'*»ut, ,n 
siiir!.* « alu! !.:s?..r 1 a" r» -c art ' a?i«l 1. h'erarv .n bu \ e* e:.t. W c d«-i.b*. 
ft-! :i»-tan. r, if • .i-%: .-' :he r« .1 !er> • •! I I'l \sitf' \l t \\ k: ■ w tha! the 
• eve r « n alio*. ■■? '\r. ^i: *. ■■: g nat'-d in a Vt\ a S* oti.r brain. "t".inada t 
wth all tl.y J.i-;l!« I ow tht c *• ;| t ■.-• r\pn ses the :'.i partia. way m 
u)i:i !. 1 if . I *. t • ■ * 'i< • 'iciis'Tui .p. ;-.tS ; r- ! le::: ■■• ^trcngt 1 a in! weakness. 
« »n the "•!••! t.- sl!i ( .ir .ij.i. g •. .\g *!.e w.«r!d a IUw-on. a Sterr\ 
Hunt .m«| an 1 .k u 1!. !'■ '•' '■>. *. • '. ■. h ■»•■•• ■■ a a 1 ■ t" a Ixiurimit, a Ha.. 
''■ir!''t» .\:i'\ a K ■■ .' •'.'•t ! . <> ■ ? ! ■. '■• n .•• .i"«! " e w arm'v fetovfrr.:e»I bv 
< ;r repal !.» *>'. ■• • r.t ■• .in-! ii ••■ rs | »••■ * ;'■ . fc 'Tapbi«.il i:-ite* attest the 
le.iT ..r>.; a:.i! pa* 1 ! ::.-! ,S # iv o» I »• 1 .. = .« :.-•!. 1 «e.idv »:!rT*se«I t»» in his 
'•» apt r.rit"!: •. !. « nri-!;'. :!;■•?. .ti H:»ttifv, .!:.■•«■! or elab«<rate work* 
I i'l : i.i.!\. wr ::..iv •:;:•• %«imrw* \\ '••■ \.is ^nw*. .i.hv t ad:;> rt: g his 
- a-. ar*d :r .». patr-- :•*■■ :<« 'i.e ! »■ -'i a- : v.t- •■;•! r::.t*her ''a/, for »e 

'..i. i- -■::.» f:"* '-e':' w\ ! k a* *■ • .' :.i! ad«.i!.!agr a !i:!..re d.iv w«iu!d un.te 
!.<> .1 •>>:•'• i'-.i.tt v I he I o\ a. ... i-*\ . » i!o.:.g ar, effe« t.ve *t,rk in advam mg 
the *.».'«' • : !.:^; v .<- r 1 ■! . at • :.. a: -: partii uiatlv :n treating and sttmulatmjf 



BOOK REVIEWS. 187 

a regard for scientific investigation and historical research, among the people 
of Canada. Nor arc the French savants less interested than the Knglish 
scholars in the work. \V. C\ WiNM.mv. 

oVrfV.v in tht Age of fVric/rs. By Arthur J. ('.rant. New York. Charles 
Scribner's Sons. i&>3. 

There are several points of great interest to American archaeologists 
brought out by this book. The author, in speaking of the Kleusinian mys- 
teries, says that the initiations were mimetic reprcsen,ationsof Demctcr and 
Persephone, the goddesses of the earth and corn, assisted by gigantic images 
and alternations of light and darkness. There was a similar conception 
among the ancient Mayas, for the dances were imitative of the motions of 
the corn (mai/ci, the feet stationary, but the arms and body waving as the 
mat/c does in the wind. The alternations of light and darkness gave rise 
to many of the myths. Thus the law of parallel development is illustrated. 
The history of land ownership in (ireece is given, as well as that of religion. 
The Spartan system was founded in military success as much as ever was 
the I ro<juois confederacy, but it ultimately gave way to the supremacy of 
Athens. The legislation of Solon changed the monarchy to a republic, and 
the world of letters and art began to appear. The Athenian democracy is 
dest nlted. It was a pure democracy -actual and direct management of 
the state by the people themselves. There was no check upon the absolute 
power of the demos, or people. It would be well for American citi/cns to 
read this little book, and learn from it how society rises from low conditions 
to a high state without the aid of kings. There are practical lessons to be 
learned from the l>ook. 

I hf InJuin and tht rtoneer. By Rose N.Vawger. Syracuse, N. V: C. \V. 
Bardeen. i8<>*. 

Notwithstanding the many l>ooks which have been written about the 
Ircxjuois. this one gives some new things about thcrrn and the popular way 
of telling the old things makes it interesting. Miss Vawger is familiar with 
the people, and has brought out some interesting facts in reference to the 
customs, articles of dress, relics, dances, modes of life and religion, and has 
►liven several specimen*, of oratory. She gives a novel interpretation of 
the Ir<Hjuoi> pipes, .she says that the fox pipe belongs to the fox clan; but 
if the fox on the lw»wl faces the smoker, it belongs to the Cayuga tribe; if it 
is looking up, it belong" to the Seneca tribe. The dress is described in 
detail necklace, the bands around the knee, the wrist bands, the arm 
bands, the moccasin, v\hi< h she says is a most beautiful and i;catl\ fitting 
article of drcs*. There were eight dances, as follows: great feather, thank*. 
giving, planting, strawberry teas!, harvest, green corn, green beans, maple. 
I he dream leasts and war feasts are descnt>ed. Woman's position i* also 
s|Miken of. The property ot the woman was separate from that of her hus- 
band, but was never alienated from the tril>c. The author ha* hardly 
touched the deep well spring of mythology. If she knows anything of its 
existent e, *hc abstains from it, and very pleasantly announces that Mr. 
Beam hamp has a volume in preparation on the subject. The publishers 
liave put the matter in excellent shape; still it would have been better, in a 
literary point <»t view, if they had published the first volume separately, for 
the second volume, which is l>ound in with it, adds nothing of value, as it is 
mainl) occupied with high schools, sanitariums, military academies, parade 



18* THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ground*, which have no connection with the Iroquois or the Indiana. The 
monument to Red jacket is appropriate, but the group of cadets can not 
properly come under the head of either Indians or pioneers. The best part 
of the book is that it contains the various specimens of Indian oratory, e. g., 
the speech of Logan, and has verified the speech as genuine; and has given 
the history and nationality and described the character of the great Mingo 
chief. "The best specimen of humanity I ever met, either red or white," is 
the testimony of one who knew him. 

Louisiana Studies. Dy Alcee Fortier. New Orleans: F. F. Hansell & 
Bro. 180,4. 

The author of this book is professor of the French language in Tulane 
university and president of the folklore society in New Orleans, and a gen- 
tlemen of fine literary taste. He has gathered into part first a great deal 
of information about the literary workers of Louisiana. He commences 
with an epic poem in French, written by Julien I'oydras in 1779, followed 
by Mr. (iayarrc in 1850, Victor Debouchel, 1841, historians; by A. Lussan 
in i8.y>, a dramatist; Dr. Testut, a novelist. The great man of Louisiana 
Audubon, the naturalist, who was born in 1781. The historical collections 
of B. F. French will not be forgotten. These were all of the first half of 
this century. In modern days, the names of ( ieorge \V. Cable, Dr. Mercier, 
Sarah A. Dorsey, Dr. \V. H. Holcomhe, and others. Norman, the arch.ro! 
ogist, is mentioned, but nothing is said of his great work. The sketch of 
the Acadians of Louisiana and their dialect occupies part second, part third 
is given to the history of education. The volume is instructive, and, as a con 
tn but ion to local history, is valuable. It throws a search light into the inner 
mental life and literary circles of New Orleans and vicinity, which brings 
out many unknown persons, but reveals the fact that the *ame taste and 
literary activity has prevailed there as in northern cities. 

Spanish PtoMfert. By Charles F. Lutnims. Illustrated. Chicago A. C 
McClur^ & Co. i8gj. 2«jj pp. Price * 1. 50. 

The author of this hook has a way of making startling assertions and 
carrying them out by means of striking illustrations. He secures the atten- 
tion of the ordinary reader, and gams his end. even if he destroys the con- 
fidence of the mi»re critical in his impartial judgment. His assertion* relate, 
first, to the superiority of the Spaniards over the F.nglish tn their discover- 
ies; second, to the great su|>eriority of the conquerors Corte/ and 1't/arro 
and the inferiority of the native princes Montezuma and the Incav third, to 
the great rapidity with which the Spaniards possessed all the interior parts 
of the continent, fourth, the superior intellectual activity of the Spaniards, 
who established a ga'.aw of eminent writer*. The greatest discoverers, the 
greatest soldiers, the greatest pioneers, the grandest scholars and the 
greatest civih/crs. were Spaniards. Compared with them, all other nations 
are insignificant. Portuguese, rrci ch, Fngh«h. After the discovery by the 
Spaniards, he selects su< h staitlin^ event* as the wanderings of C a bee a de 
\ aca; the attack upon the rmk Aomia. which he calls the storming of the 
sky city, the leap ot .Vvorado. a search for Fl l>orado. or the storv of the 
modern Jacinths or tht» golden fleece 1'irarm is < ailed the "swineherd of 
1 ruxillo, and the man who would not gtve up. ' The <oldcn*ran*otn of the 
Peruvian Atahualpi is dev nbed. but the <aptive king is accused of treat ti- 
er) and Pi/arro is defended. The romance of American history is really 



BOOK REVIEWS. 189 

the subject of the hook, and the author is evidently bound to make the 
Spaniards the heroes of the romance. It is a one-sided view which the author 
takes, but it Rives a certaia charm to the style, which will attract readers 
and lead them to follow the writer through the entire history. The publish- 
ers have added to the interest by the use of several well-selected platen, 
among them the portrait of Francis Pi /arm, which is used as a frontispiece. 

Reiigion an J Myth. Bv Rev. James McDonald, author of "Light in Africa." 
London: I). Nutt; New York: Charles hcrtbner's Sons. 180J. 240 pp. 

Primitive man and the supernatural, guarding the evolution of deity, 
sacrifice of kings, taboos, witchcraft, prophecy, acts of devotion, myths, are 
among the subjects treated of in this book. The deifying of kings is one 
of the most interesting facts brought out, but the sacrificing of kings, or 
killing the god, that his spirit might enter his successor, is very novel. There 
nas a transference of divinity to the substitute. All sacrifices were made 
by tire. This throws light upon some of the ancient customs of Mexico and 
of the Mayas, where the victim of sacrifice was fed and clothed as a king 
and afterward immolated. The mysteries are performed in honor of the 
budding powers of nature as a divinity. These ceremonies are performed 
while the crops are still green. The festival of the May-pole prevails. It 
was common to preserve the skulls of ancestors, as the skulls were supposed 
to be the abode of the departed soul. Each man sacrifices to his own 
ancestors; each clan, through the magician, to the heads of the clan; each 
tribe to the ancestors of its chief. In this way sacrifices to kings and of 
kings occurred. The book needs to be read to be appreciated. The same 
customs that arc described in Frazer's Golden Hough are found in Africa, 
and similar customs and notions prevailed in ancient America. 

James Evans. The Inventor of the Syllabic System of the Crce Language. 
By John McLean, Ph.D. Toronto: William Briggs. 2c8 pp. 

Mr. McLean, the author of this book, is well known in Canada as a mis- 
sionary ami contributor to papers and magazines, and is the author of a 
book c ailed "The Indians of Canada. * The subject of the memoir was also 
a missionary among the Indians, the Crees.and was the inventor of the Crce 
syllabic system. He labored under great difficulties in this, inasmuch as 
there was no type foundry and he was obliged to cut the letters or charac- 
ters out from wood with his jack knife, and then gather lead from tea-chests 
and so cast his own type. The alphabet is described, and several pages 
printed in the book as specimens. 

1 he I. And of P.\o Tiempo. By Charles F. Lummis. New York: Charles 
Scnbncr's Sons. 1 8*^3. Illustrated. 

The title of this l>ook means " pretty soon." and titlv expresses the sun 
silence and adobe that is in New Mexico. The picture brought before us is 
comparatively modern. The city in the sky is inhabited by modern Pueblos. 
There are good looking girls in modem costume among the Indians. The 
walled < avc room* arc there; the Apache warriors are there; the penitent 
brothers are there. Ancient and modern, savage and civilized, pagan and 
Catholic, mingled together. The folk songs set to music are given 13 the 
book. These are mingled with the songs about the railroad, translated into 
Spanish. The story of (^uivira is also told. It is an entertaining book. The 
articles, which were hrst published in Sirihners .\fagazine. have becngath- 



I»> TIIK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ercd, reprinted, and make an elegant volume. The en^rav mj; of the stone 
puma*, found -ome fifty mile-* from Santa Fe, is north almost the price of 
the b«N>k, for it preserves the knowledge of twn remarkable monument-, 
whii h -how what was the religion of this people. I he author has drawn 
hi«» inhumation troni llande'uer. Dui'.ity is their religion. There were four 
orders. mothers warrior-, mrdit me men. The fable that the CIiiT-dwrelleis 
were a separate ra« e ha-* been exploded. Thev were 1'ueblns pure and 
simple. I he home of the l'>< hiti ha- a line ot cave rooms a couple of mile- 
lone,, and in tier* ot two and three -tone-. I hey hewed the ii»oins with 
obsidian kmw- out ot the rot k. '\S, with an lied rooS. Down the -lope 
near a biook i- the est'ifa, ami in a niche in the » lit! is the house of the 
t aehiue. The an< tent li!e i- di-appearim.'. the >pam-h invasion ha- broken 
it. It requires < lo-»e stud> to a-returni what were the am iciil iu-t«>m-. 

//:<f^n (,'ft'tfi A./j, ,"■,/ /';■'. liy l\l!a Hoe- Neville. Sarah <ireene Mar 
tin, Deborah iW'.onn.'iit M.utm. < item \*a\, W iv 1* ( M;-hed by the 
Authoiv iS,;. 

\ hi'* is a beautitui \»»>k and -how- e\< e'.Ient ta-te tin the part of the 
authors and publisher* I: « o:it.ti:.s an index by Reuben < iold Ihwait- and 
a tew tmei> e\e< isted < ■.* *, .1 ■.•! not . .nc of them mars the beauty of the I "Nik. 
"A tiling of beaut\ 1- a • •> 1 te\er It treat- ol ear'v explorations, the 
learnt-, an 1 < our our % .h; \» • .-. '. 1" !•" >\ war, 1 !nr!(s de I. n^i.i b\ ijii » 1 n!-l 
H>!niivd.i\\ under th«* \i , u"-«.i , i 'l.u'. a !r. »•:■:*. on per :o.! # Hie !«»-: Dauph:n. 
territorial piM'iiuiii'j.! :. ..»:• r \'.ir- I r.i !i:.t- sh..w tin -1 ope of the 
b>»k. Irom the 1 re:.« !i iiii->ioii.it\ M.iripn-*'! * ■ •• v adm:-s;nn it thi Mate. 
thiiMl^'h the t-inr- «»t the 1 »■-»:■ ? ■ .i:.d 1 1 ■■ : : .t 11 war. ?!.r K»' v o.uti-irt the t.r-t 
settlement, bid^r Dot) - tun* the *■..?-. ■ ! 1 iiarr \\ .am-, the d.i\-ot 
Dan el W h:t:.f\. T '.d fc *e .\f!:-.!. I ..'■.« ?! !»w • II *v l;.it!.l. W.li a :i V !« he!'. 
Kev. *-tepheli I'u'l, .u.-l tin* ; ■ p. it 1! 1. . *. r r ,r pMsri.: >I.i\«. o| pro«per.:\ 
It s ded • I'fil to tht ":.■ *•!« w ,1 >. \\.\% - <•* : .e ea:!> \»i:'*r:' .in ->ef« 1- 
wh • «i si' e-*til!!\ a<h ! .r. !* * a \ 1:. 1M1 •■.' ■ ! ,l p '• e 'I »',!:■■! !-..\:,. a 
• !ti!i>a!.i'ii uh;i 'i hi- :■ ■:> '.i ; ■ ■ • ).• .f' « ! •• • w r vr a - .'! !. i< .ivi-im'T ! 
man\ prei .■» :« n.r::. ■■!;■■■ V* » r« •'■■a - .'-* I ■' ! •' • a-Vo-- w, *. .t*e -•• 
th.t.i/'.ttui a:.-l at« sn w 1 . ..1 ' ■ ::-.«■■• a h. '.•■.■•..• ) • '. 

i '. ,v/;/ x '" ;/■■ I.. « it Ii-m. V \ .-'fa!' ! *^».» 1 ■ :■, \\ \\..\'. 

\ « •» l* ,J ;-«.'- •■■ « . > ■ 

Ari« irnt -h pp ' * •■ . p 1 .■ ■ ' ■ *d- i '. • r 1 ■ .1 i'..%e. : I'. 

I , • a:..'. I. • \ ! ' I •■ • .•' ■ • ■ ■. ■ *h -I.; !■■ ■:■• . •' - . p; ■„;.?! ...it 

:. lk ■ .; ::i p«i -•■■• : ■: t • . . . • • . •••■:■■ 1! \ .\\- *. p- • .• ■ . .1* !, • ■ 

!*ir*e ! r ♦ 1 ' . 1 ■ 1 -■ r .1 ■ 1 ■ . • , : ; . •* ,■ i ,»,■ ^» |;.. i:.|-,- 

l'\ ■a'it.i.e*' I .' * : * o i 1 - ! : 1 • *• ;• •:. irk i'« r ot •m--- wcr 

f •■ •• .if '. e««-i w .*• ' ; ■ ;■ ■ . . '. !•- - ■■! »! • *. • ■■ .;.\ .1 ! 

a- h:§:- a- toiry r.- ;• I ! r « • " 1 \ \ 1 -t .it-. a\--* !r* r'u'd 

a!.d !h« r :■■:.:. 1. «■ . ■ I f .■ l ■ •■■ .«■ * - : * 1 . ■ ■ -:• :■ : >•: ■ '. "hip*. 

.•..'.':■.•..;:'• •■..■■•■.• • ■ r ■ ". : .. . * a ir*.*. -1 i 1 -. • rtr! •. 

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i- :•■•-■ ■ * ■ .-"• r ' ' I: 1 :u a*iirc 



I 



THE 



^rucxxaxn Antiquarian, 



Vol. XVI. July, 1894. No. 4. 

THE NEUTRAL NATION. 
By W. M Beauchamp. 

After the Mohawks left the valley of the St. Lawrence, the 
Canadian branch of the Huron- Iroquois family maybe conveni- 
ently divided into the three bodies known as the Hurons, the 
Petun or Tobacco Nation, and the Neutral Nation, lying on the 
south of these. All these bodies were composed of separate 
nations, quite as much as the Five Nations of New York, but 
confederated in a union similar to that famous league. When 
first known the Hurons had withdrawn their outlying towns on 
the south and east, on account of the Iroquois war, and dwelt 
in quite a compact body between the Georgian Bay and Lake 
Simcoe, occupying positions along the low hills 01 the region, 
but not the bottom lands. They had their common name from 
the French, but according to the Relation of 1639, their lan- 
guage was called Ouendat, equivalent to the present Wyandot. 
In that Relation also, their four nations are called Attignaou- 
antan, Attigneenongnahac, Arendahronons and Tohontaenrat. 
In other places the enumeration is somewhat different, the 
Ataronahronons being reckoned as one, and the Tahotaenrat as 
an inferior nation with but one town. Their country is full of 
the ossuaries made at the dead feasts, and the larger part of 
these cover a period of about fifty years, within the seventeenth 
century. If the rate had been uniform this would give a period 
of about one hundred years. 

A broad valley separated the Petuns from the Hurons. 
These were fewer in number, and their downfall at once followed 
that of their Huron neighbors. Their name of Tobacco Nation 
came from their cultivation of the Indian Tobacco, Nicottana 
rust tea, still raised by the New York Iroquois, and used in their 
sacred feasts. They were well known as the Tiooontaties, and 
still later as the Wyandots. 



194 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

A wide interval separated the Petuns from the Neutrals on 
the south, whose country extended along the north shore of 
Lake Erie, reaching Lake Ontario and having its southeastern 
boundary in New York, where they had a few towns tor a while. 
Thev were a numerous people, but being neutral in the war 
between the Huron* and Iroquois, they were not obliged to live 
as compactly as the Hurons, and some of their towns were far 
apart. They were sometimes called Attikadaron, but their own 
name was Akouanake. The Hurons called them Atttwanda- 
ronk, 4t A people with a language a little different." They had 
different burial customs from the Hurons, though the ossuary 
system was quite prevalent in the eastern part. The French 
were delighted with their country and praised it highly, con- 
trasting it with the colder parts ol Canada in which they had 
lived. Game was abundant, fish filled the streams and vegeta- 
bles grew freely. Their hunting was wasteful, their habits 
were indolent, and their morals low. Abundant food gave them 
physical strength, but they made war only against the Nation 
of Fire in Michigan. 

Why they were not good canoe men does not appear, but 
they undertook few long journeys except against the Nation of 
Fire. Formerly thev had waged war against some nation 
towards the (iulf ot Mexico, trom whom thev obtained shell 
beads. As elsewhere, mad men were a privileged class among 
them, and many were shrewd enough to assume this character. 
The "insanity dodge" is old. Thev were both brave and cruel, 
and it was not tear that kept them at home, but it may have 
been indolence. It was the policy ot the Hurons and Petuns, 
however, to monopolize trade, and this may have been the rea- 
son why the} traveled so little. 

The Neutral country has been less systematically studied 
than any part ot the Iroquois country ne.tr the (Jrcat Lakes. 
Mr. A. F. Hunter has accurately mapped .mil descrilwd the 
country and towns ot the Hurons and Petuns. Nearly all the 
sites of New York are well known, whetlu-r ot the Five Nations 
or Eries, or any people kindred to either. The Andasles, ol" 
Pennsylvania, have received some attention, but it is but recently 
that any attempt has Inren made to explore or describe the Neu- 
tral towns. Some years ago Dr. Tweed.de gave the writer an 
account ot the South wold earth work near St. Thomas, and it 
has been described sever. d times since. Its double banks make 
it of special interest, as a single example ol this kind occurs in 
both Onondaga and Orleans county, N. Y. The latter is prob- 
ably a Neutral site, one ot the tew e.i^t of the Niagara River. 
Ohio shells have ln*en lound in it. I)r Tweed ale reported * 
line of earth-works and other sites westward Irom St. Thomas, 
differing much trom tho*e ot the Hurons. Some ol Ids relics 
were ot the Iroquois ty|>e t but his work was cf a somewhat 
general nature. He reported this tort as circular, whereas it is 



THE NEUTRAL NATION. 196 

elliptical, but he seemes first to have called attention to it. It 
contains fire-places and pottery. 

More recently the Canadian Institute has taken up the matter, 
and with some good results. The South wold earth-work has 
been examined and plotted, and some others have been located 
and described. The Report for 2893, has a valuable article 00 
the Neutrals and their country, by Mr. James H. Coyne, in 
which an attempt is made to give the general location of some 
villages mentioned by the Jesuits. With one exception there is 
no definite assignment of sites in this, and that one may be only 

f>artially correct. Mr. John Gilmary Shea had already publ- 
ished early accounts of missionary explorations, with some con- 
jectures ot his own, and the subject is likely to emerge from its 
long obscurity. We have all the historic material. What is 
now needed is as thorough an examination of all village sites, 
with a record of their geographical situation, as has been made 
in the territory of other early nations. The best results will not 
be attained at once, for while a site and its general age may be 
quickly determined, it will require some care to tell what its re- 
lations are to others, far or near. A large portion of the towns 
occupied in the seventeenth century should yield European 
articles, and it is important to know how many will or do. It 
is true tne Neutrals saw little of Europeans, but the shrewd 
and trading Hurons supplied what they wanted at a good profit, 
and opposed missionary visits because these would destroy their 
monopoly of trade. The missionaries themselves distributed 
articles in the towns they visited. 

When Champlain was in that part of Canada, among the 
Hurons, in 1615-16, he wished to visit the Neutrals, but was 
dissuaded from doing so. He described them as a powerful 
nation, with 4,000 warriors, and allied to the Cheveux Kelevex, 
who were two days* journey north of them. On his map they 
are placed south of Lake Erie, or the stream which represents 
it. This error is simply the result of his ignorance of that lake, 
his description being sufficiently clear. 

Brule, the companion of Champlain, was there at an early 
day, and told wonderful stories about the Neutral country, 
through which he must have passed when on his way to ask the 
Andastes to aid in the Huron expedition of 1615 against the 
Iroquois. The visit ot De la Roche Dailloo, in 1626, resulted 
from this. He left the Huron country October 18, 1626, ac- 
companied by two Frenchmen, passing through the Petun 
country. This would give a southwestern route. A Petun 
chief offered to be their guide, and furnished porters. On the 
sixth day the first Neutral village was reachea, and four others 
were visited before Ounontisaston, the chief town, was entered. 
At a council he made presents of small articles, and was adopted 
by Souharissen, the chief of the whole country, under whose 
authority were twenty-eight villages, besides' many hamlets. 



196 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Daillon remained alone in their country for more than three 
months, when the Hurons became jealous of his efforts to bring 
about a direct French trade. The Neutrals were willing to 
send four canoes under his guidance, but knew not the way to 
the French trading post themselves. 

In the face of Daillon's words it is rather strange that Mr. 
Shea should have thought the desired river was the Niagara, 
which was wholly within their boundaries. " Y roquet, an Indian 
known in those countries, who had come there with twenty ol 
his men hurting tor beaver, and who took fully rive hundred, 
would never give us any mark to know the mouth ot the river. 
He and several Hurons assured us well that it was only ten 
days* journey to the trading place; but we were afraid of taking 
one river for another, and losing our way, or dving of hunger 
on the land/ 9 The Niagara was already named by the Neu- 
trals, and familiar to them. Daillon simply meant that if they 
went in canoes on Lake Ontario, they would have to explore 
every bay and river along its shores in searching for the St. 
Lawrence. So many are these, and he knew not how many, 
that the task seemed too great. Were not this sufficient his 
previous words are quite precise. His companions had gone, 
and he "remained, the happiest man in the world, hoping to do 
something to advance (iod's gloiv, or at least to discover the 
means (which would be no small thing ■, and to endeavor to dis- 
cover the mouth ot the river ot the Hiroquois, in order to bring 
them to trade.' 9 He wondcre 1 th.it no Frenchmen had Ik-en 
sent there, "for there is scarcely any inducement to go to trade 
with the Hurons over so many dstlu tilt rapids, always in danger 
of being drowned, and then to make .1 *i\ days' jourm-v Irom 
the Hurons to this country, eroding the lands by tearful and 
terrihL* routes as I have seen." French traders ought to he 
tent directly to the Neutrals "lor they cm proceed by the lake 
of the Hiroquois to the trading place in, .it iiidM, ten days. The 
lake is theirs also, the one on one side, and tin* other* on the 
other. Hut I see one obv.ulr, which i« that the\ know little 
about managing canoe*, especially ;it rap:dv M Thi* extract 
also shows that the Neutral country look in rmuh ot the north 
shore of Lake On: aim, Marceiy .my ul the >ouih. There were, 
however, several Neutral town- ea*t of the Niagara River, and 
one ol these wa* called Ouarop mon, "one day's journey from 
the Iroquois their relative- and tr:end>." He did n^t visit them, 
but they visited him to his co*t. Shea lorrectly sav* that this 
was a tribal name. The Onondaga* now interpret it "a separate 
people." Though related to the Imquif> their political affilia- 
tion was with the Neutral*. 

After Daillon was obliged to leave, there was no attempt to 
enter the Neutral country until llreheul anil C'haumonot com- 
menced their journey irom the mi*sinn i»t Ste. Mane, November 
2, 1640. This was on the northern line ot the Huron territory. 



THE NEUTRAL NATION. 197 

and after being lour nights in the woods they came to the first 
of the Neutral towns, called Kandoucho. They named this 
All Saints. From the length of the journey they probably went 
nearly due south, and the village may have been a little north 
of Burlington Bay, where there are ossuaries with European 
articles. It has been thought to have been N. D. Anges, which 
was on the west side of Grand River apparently, and too far 
west. From Kandoucho they passed through several hamlets 
and village.*, and came to Tsohahissen's town, the capital of the 
country. This name seems an official title, and the town was 
probably the one which Daillon called Ounontisaston, which 
might then have occupied a different site. St. Alexis has been 
proposed for this, as being near the middle of the country, 
reckoning from east to west, and not far from the present town 
of St. '1 homas. This nearly coincides with the Southwold 
earth-work, which may have been occupied many years earlier. 
It is well known that towns were frequently removed, and there 
were several earth-works in this neighborhood. As the mission 
in a grner.il way was called the Mission of the Angels, it is 
quite likely that the village which the travelers called N. D. des 
Anges was the capital, and on the old map this is nearer the 
true center of the country. 

They passed through eighteen towns and villages, to all of 
which Christian names were given, and in ten they gave some 
instruction; but their reception was not cordial, and they started 
back tor Kandoucho. The old maps are of service here, and 
one may be noticed. 

Une of the two Jesuits who traversed the Neutral country in 
1 640 1 was Chaumonot, who went to Onondaga in 1655. Father 
Creu.x is said to have been at Onondaga the following year, 
associated with him in missionary work, but his name does not 
appear in the usual lists. Creux, or Creuxeius, as he chose to 
call his name in his publications, issued a map in 1660, in which 
Indian names are given with Latin terminations. On this are 
>everal Neutral towns under the names bestowed upon them by 
Brebeuf and Chaumonot. If he was associated with the latter, 
he probably received them from him, but they may have been 
on a map made by Chaumonot himself. Mr. Coyne describes a 
map ot Sanson'* ot 1056, which differs from the one mentioned 
by Justin Winsor of that date, but which is much like Creux'a. 
In a general way this map of 1660 will help us in our knowledge 
ol the Neutral country. The name of the "Gens Neutral" 
appears west ot Toronto, extending towards the foot ol Lake 
Huron, thus making the territory take in all of that part ol the 
province ot Ontario King to the south of this line. About 
Toronto is I\ Annaihiaius, and at Burlington Bay is P. Oton- 
taronius, otherwise the pagus % canton or country of the tribes 
names. The Latin termination may be dropped. Near the 
Niaraga River the name may refer to the cataract or the Neu- 



198 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

tral village there. The villages given are St. Francis, placed 
near the present site of St. Paul's, in Perth County; St. Michel, 
between Chatham and Lake St. Clair; St. Joseph, in the south* 
west part of Kent County; St. Alexis, near St. Thomas; and 
N. D. Anges, west of a large river, but two-thirds of the way 
from St. Alexis to St. Francis. It was probably on the west 
side of Grand River. The "Natio Felium," or Eries, was placed 
southwest of Lake Erie. East of the mouth of the Niagara 
River was the P. Ondieronii, the Aondironnons, a Neutral 
nation destroyed by the Senecas in 1648; and just south of this 
P. Ondiasacus, about Buffalo, probably another Neutral tribe. 

The missionaries were fairly treated only at Khioetoa, or St. 
Michel, in the southwest corner ol the Neutral territory. There 
dwelt a foreign nation, called the Aouenrehronons, who had 
formerly lived beyond the Eries, on the borders of the Iroquois. 
Flying from them they settled in this unoccupied corner of the 
Neutral country. Thev seem to have been those who. in 1626- 
occupied the village ot Ouraronon, a day's journey from the 
Iroquois. Half way from the western border, on their way to 
Kandoucho, or All Saints, the missionaries were detained twenty- 
five days by snow, at a place called Teotongniaton, or St. 
Guillaume, where they made a comparative study of the Neutral 
and Huron dialects. Thence they went directly to the Hurons. 
Neither of these towns are on the map, but Sir. Coyne's con- 
jecture that the latter was near Woodstock seems good. He 
also thought a ruined house in Middlesex County, about forty 
miles from Sarnia, was the mission ot St. Francis, but the two 
persecuted missionaries did not build stone chimneys eighteen 
feet high, or lay out gardens in the winter; nor was there any 
permanent, or even later work among the Neutrals. 

A map made nearly a 1 quarter ol a century later has some 
interesting features, bringing out the confederate s\stcm of this 
people. At the head of Grand River in "Atiragenra, nation 
detruite," not far from the mission site of N. I). des Anges. It 
suggests a Huron people, but is much too tar south. "Antou- 
aronons, nation detruite/* is on the west side, near the mouth of 
the same river, and "Niagarcga, nation detruite," on the east 
side. "Ka-Kouagoga, nation dctruile," is on the east «iide of 
Niagara River, and this is commonly understood to refer to the 
Kah Kwahs. 

After the overthrow of the Aondironnons, in if^S other por- 
tions of the Neutrals soon felt the power ot the Iroquois The 
conquest of the Huron and I'etun countries inflamed their desire 
tor blood, and their plan ot adopting captives was an incentive 
to war against their own kindred, who could l*e readily assimi- 
lated. So the Neutral territory in Canada was invaded by the 
Iroquois in If '50, and two large villages on the frontier were 
captured in the autumn ol that year and the spring ot 1651. 
The latter was that ot Teolondiaton, possibly that which Brcbeuf 



THE NEUTRAL NATION. 199 

called St. William. This would hardly agree, however, with 
the location ot the latter midway in the country, unless the 
Neutrals at once adopted the common practice of destroying 
outlying and smaller towns, concentrating their forces in those 
which were larger. Similarity in names is often misleading. 
However this may be, the effect on the Neutrals was terrible. 
They lett their homes and sought the wilderness, where most 
ot them perished from hunger. Some slight efforts were made 
looking to resistance, but as a nation they had disappeared in 
1653, and their land became an Iroquois hunting ground. Large 
numbers were adopted by the conquerors. Father Fremin 
found many at the Seneca village of Gandougare. 6r St. Michel, 
in 1668, the village being made up of remnants of three different 
captive nations. "The first nation is called Onontioga, the 
second the Neuter, and the third the Huron. The first two 
have seldom, if ever, seen Europeans." 

It there were indeed forty Neutral villages at one time, this 
would give nearly three hundred sites in a century, but if we 
allowed hall the number and doubled the time there would still 
he a fine field for the archaeologist. It is, and was, such a 
country as pleased the Huron- Iroquois family, and the popula- 
tion may not have been exaggerated. 

It remains to be seen what has been found in the Neutral 
territory. There has been some random collecting of articles 
ot an early dav, and these scarcely differ trom those on the south 
»ide ot Lake Ontario. Articles of striped slate are especially 
abundant in Middlesex County, but these were not made by the 
Iroquois family. Abundant flint chips are found near Lake 
Erie, and very curious pipes of a soft grey stone near Hamilton. 
Clay pipes are somewhat trequent, but this is hardly true of 
earthenware in general, probably because fragments have 
lieen overlooked. A few earth-works have been discovered, 
mostly in the neighborhood of St. Thomas, whence they 
seem to have extended westward. It is proper to call the 
sites near Toronto, Neutral rather than Huron, where they 
belong to either, as some of them do not. These are mostly 
early, and there are a few ossuaries. Farther west, in Bever- 
ley, about seventeen miles from Hamilton, the most notable 
ossuaries were found. These were long and wide trenches, and 
had many European articles. In this town iron axes are par- 
ticularly abundant on some sites, and stockades occur. The 
shell beads are mostly discoid, a western feature, and bone and 
horn articles occur as on all Iroquoian sites. An ossuary in 
Humberstone, a few miles trom Port Colborne, seems the west- 
ern limit of this mode of burial, in that part of Canada. 

The Hurons did little in making earth- works, nor is it proba- 
ble that the Neutrals retained them when first known to the 
French. Thus far the forts of this kind in their country have 
yielded no European articles, but have those characteristic of 



200 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the Iroquois family. The bank and ditch across a ridge some- 
times occur. Farther west still, near Clearville, Kent County, 
and about two miles from Lake Erie, is a spot where both 
earth-works and palisades were used. Scrapers have been re* 
ported from this place, in connection with iroquoian articles, 
which is very curious il true, but the place was occupied more 
than once. Near Lake St. Clair mounds and circular earth- 
works have been vaguely reported. 

Until we know more of their towns of the seventeenth cen- 
tury it is impossible to make any estimate of the length of the 
Neutral occupation of the country ' bordering on Lake Erie. 
With strong nations continually waging war upon their western 
border, it seems very doubtful whether they entered Canada 
from that direction, while their known friendship for the Iro- 
quois renders it probable that they came from the southern side 
of the Great Lakes. Some of their number were even related 
to the Senecas and dwelt in New York. Some relation they 
also bore to the Ilurons, each distinguishing the other as those 
who spoke a language a little different. The general lack of 
ossuaries is another point of resemblance between them and the 
New York Iroquois, and we have seen that the Southwold 
earth-work, with its double walls, is represented in New York. 
The ossuary may fairly Ik* considered a Huron fashion, but very 
slightly affecting other members of the farnilv, and having its 
greatest development after their separation. It is hardly in ac- 
cordance with known facts to suppose it a primitive custom 
which had died out in places. Certainly the greatest Neutral 
ossuaries were of very recent times, and nearest to the Ilurons. 

In favor of their originating south ol the lakes is also the tact 
that their first white visitors describe them as occupying the 
north shore of Lake Ontario. The Huron war, ol course, with 
its passage of hostile parties, might cause them to move farther 
west, even as they withdrew from l*>th sides ol" Niagara River; 
and the establishment ot a New York tribe on their western 
border tends to show that this had been little occupied. When 
the question is fully studied it may appear that the earlv home 
of the family was on the southeastern border ot L.ike Erie, but 
in what numbers or in what way it came there may prove a 
greater puzzle still.* 

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rAtr J *». ;'..!■ *•«-*•. II * *•' » ' I \» " n«- *■■:>» !V I I. *! Il •> » 1" ■ %•■ I . Ti -n1.il .r. 

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l.'.e :i.4| .e 



THE NATIVITY OF MAIZE. SOI 



THE NATIVITY OF MAIZE. 
By James Wickbrsham. 

The letter of Rev. Joseph Edkins, of Shanghai, China, pub- 
lished herewith, is very interesting when taken in connection 
with the recent monograph by Prof. Harshberger on the special 
study of maize or Indian corn. After a careful inquiry into its 

[>robable origin, Prof. Harsh berger concludes that its earliest 
lome was in Central America, whence it spread north and south 
over the continents of America, and was first taken into the Old 
World after 1492. Dr. Edkins and Dr. Bretschneider deny its 
Chinese origin, and thus quite strongly add testimony confirma- 
tory of the conclusion reached by our American specialist. 

0.1 the other hand, Margaret Sidney, in the Arena for June, 
1893, in speaking of the Asiatic origin of this valuable plant, 
says: "The array of names hospitable to the idea that corn was 
of eastern origin is a good one; M. Bonafaus, of Sardinia, in 
his labored treatise, published in Pans in 1836, declares it was 
ot Chinese origin; Bock, a botanist, in 1532, is equally positive 
that it came from Arabia, and he calls it the 'wheat of Asia; 1 
Kucllius also asserts that it came from Arabia; Crawford, in 
his 'History of the Indian Archipelago, 9 says that 'maize was 
known there under the name of Djagoung long before Colum- 
bus discovered America; 9 while as to the Chinese enthusiast 
Li-chi-tchin, he thinks that he has the strongest case of all for 
believing the maize to have originated in China; Fuchsius sets 
it down as coming from Asia and Greece," etc. 

Leggc, in translating the Chinese classics, translates the word 
"Iumg" as maize, thus lending his name to the belief that the 
plant tlourished anciently in China. "This," says Bretschneider, 
"needs correct!* n, for '/tang' means the Sctaria Italica or P an- 
trum Italtcum" Upon an examination of Williams 9 dictionary 
of the Chinese language, we find this definition of the word 
"Hang :" "The common spiked millet or canary seed (Sctaria 
ltalu'nv % the only difference between it and the "suA" is its size 
and the awns on the spikes, this having the largest grain and 
longest awn; this distinction is not now maintained, and the 
application is disused." The character standing for u hang" 
Williams says, is derived "from rice, and the next contracted, 
which some say was given to it from the region near SzVh'uen, 
where it was early grown." 

Upon turning to the word "s«A" we find that the character in 
question is derived "from rice and west," and that the word 
means "rice in the husk, paddy, and much used in Fuhchau; it 
was a general name for grains, and is still applied to the spiked 



202 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

millet (Sctaria) and maize (Zea)\ the seed of panic grasses; 
small sand ; rent in tithes/* Its next meaning is given as "Indian 
corn or maize.** 

It seems, then, that the characters in Chinese writing for 
Setaria^ov millet, and maize are derived from the same source, a 
combination of those for "rice" and "west;** that millet (Setaria) 
is called "lian»" and "su/t;" that maize is known as"$«A,** which 
is the generic term and includes "liang" If corn was named 
"rice of the west" by the Chinese, we are not yet driven to 
conclude that it came into China via Europe after 1492, for 
Williams says in his definition of "liang,** that it was anciently 
grown in the region near Sz'ch*uen ; in other words, may the char- 
acter for corn not be properly translated "the rice of Sy*ch*uen?" 



Shanghai, January 6, 1894. 

Dear Sir: I received your letter to-day, and this evening I 
have referred to Bretschneider's Hotanieen Sinicum for the 
word maize. This work was published at Shanghai, February, 
1892, under the auspices of the Chinese branch of the Royal 
Asiatic Society. It contains 468 pages. I place full confidence 
in Dr. Bretschneider's identifications of pl.ints, lor he is in con- 
stant communication with the best Ixjtanists in St. Petersburg, 
London and Pans. He says: "I may observe that maize, an 
American plant, was unknown to the ancient Chinese.*' I^egge, 
in the Chinese classics, translates the Chinese "/#/im»" bv maize. 
This, says Bretschneider, needs correction, (or "liang" means 
the Setaria It alien or Panicum Italicum, It is the chief lood of 
many millions of hum.in beings in North China and in Italy at 
the present time. Sorghum, now called u tas liang" in North 
China, was introduced Irom India into China in the third cen- 
tury, dating Irom Anno Domini. Li-shi-chen, whom you men- 
tion as believing that ancient China possessed maize, lived in 
the sixteenth itntury, so that the maize he knew might be of 
American origin. Bur. 1 believe, he does not mention maize, 
nor, 1 believe, does Ka-mpler sj>eak of it in his Amoenitates 
/;*. xo fit <r. The um* ot maize as food has spread rapidly in 
China during the last century. It is a great favorite with the 
poor on account ot its cheapness. China has received from 
America potato?*, tobacco, maize and silver. 

2. Your second quo' ion refers ti> the Indian stone mill, nictate. 
It is, as you descrit** it, a roller, and much less efficient than a 
revi living mill, but it is used ?o make rough meal by rol.ing 
piessiire on a level surlace. The Chinese use round grinding 
stones, verv thiik and heavy, which produce fine meal by cir- 
cular revolution. For pressing oil, they have a revolving roller, 
whiih is always at a right angle to the under stone. It is much 
more ingenious than the Indian met ate. The tact is that China 
has always been a borrower. Their agricultural implements 



THE NATIVITY OF MAIZE. 203 

are ingenious* but not necessarily invented by themselves. lust 
now there is a large demand forjapanese-made spinning machines 
based on European ideas. There is no nutate known here. 
Language shows that the Dakota Indians were of Asiatic origin. 

3. The Chinese instruments of punishment are of bamboo or 
wood. There is one called chi of bamboo. The criminal lies 
flat. The man who inflicts the penalty is called tsau It. It is 
two feet long and is held in one hand. The change five teet 
long, is used with two hands to beat the criminal on the back ol 
his legs. Only four stripes are allowed. Its use leaves scars 
on the thighs. Any person who has such scars is not allowed 
to pass the Great Wall, nor can he in the army become an 
officer. The kzvan used in camp to beat soldiers is in shape 
something like the Indian war-club. It is two or three feet long. 
It makes no scar, so that he who is punished with it is not dis- 
qualified trom rising in rank. Ol weapons used in the army, 
there are eighteen kinds. Many of them are of very old shapes, 
but I have not at hand a description of them. 

4. You ask regarding funeral mounds. In China the depth 
is important. The depth beneath the surface is as important as 
the height above the surface. The tomb of an emperor must 
have a water path inside, to insure the continuance of good 
luck. For the most distinguished in an imperial line, a tomb a 
mile round is sufficient. Emperors less distinguished have smaller 
mounds. The emperor's coffin rests over the "golden well" — a 
spring, the source of the water path. The water must always 
he running, so that the tombs must be on the side of a hill with 
springs. The burial is like that, I believe, of the period before 
fire worship began in Persia. You will see this point briefly 
referred to in my "Early Spread ol Religious Ideas," lately 
published. Zoroaster put down cremation perhaps about 1200 
B. C. Before that there was cremation coming up with fire 
worship. Previous to this there would be burial in coffins. To 
that stage in the development of funeral rites the Chinese idea* 
of burial belong. In China the idea of the necesssity of run- 
ning water beneath a tomb is not older than fifteen centuries 
ago, when the Chinese very much modified their notions on 
burial. No great Indian chief would be likely to have such an 
enormous mound raised over his coffin as an emperor of China 
has, but I expect the principle is the same. So far as I know, a 
detailed legend is attached to every large funeral mound in 
China, and it is stated in the local topography to whom the 
mound belonged. These legends may be inventions or not, but 
every mound has such a legend of origin. That the funeral 
rites in North America were of Asiatic origin is probable, be- 
cause in Mexico, China and Japan many persons were put to 
death at the funeral of monarchs to attend them in the other 
world. The Chinese monarchs very seldom encouraged this 
cruel custom. It was practiced to a frightful extent by the 



204 THE AMERICAN ANTIQMARIAN. 

Japanese and the Mexicans. As the Japanese language is of 
Tartar origin, this fact seems to require that the Indian tribes 
speaking tongues which resemble the Dakota must have oome 
from Asia. The Japanese government and the mikados dynasty 
date from about B. C. 600. Perhaps it was about that time that 
the Indian emigration to North America took place. My reason 
for placing it so late is that the Indian tribes have views on the 
future state which are advanced in their distinctness. The 
Chinese about that time began to believe that it is possible for 
the souls ot the dead to meet in the underworld. The North 
American population would not be likely, on the hypothesis of 
a common origin of language and religion, to entertain these 
views earlier than the Chinese. In China, it the future state 
was not very distinctly a tenet of popular faith before that age, 
we may find an approximation to a date for the entrance of 
Tartar tribes, the ancestors ot the Dakotas and other Indians, 
into the North American continent. * * * * 

I should much like to know whether America was more ac- 
cessible frcm Asia by the Aleutian Islands three thousand years 
ago than now. The climate of North Asia was better — milder 
and more favorable to the civilized development ot man formerly 
than it now is. This \> shown by the tacts mentioned by A. 
Ilaworth in the "Mammoth and the Flood." • * * 

I am going to print your questions and my answers in the 
Mc*scti£cr % ot which I will send you a copy. The annual sub- 
scription to our Asiatic Society is five dollars; subscribers have 
the journal tree. Yours very trulv, 

J IV 

J. LOKINS. 
O 

MIMKTIC AND DRAMATIC KLKMKNT IN RKLIGloN. 

With primitive man. religion is much more a matter of cere- 
mony than «tl theology. I he mere physical influence, the 
spontaneous disi liar;//- ot nervous energy, account for the origin 
ot the il.une. which is the chief form of religious worship. The 
savage thinks that the spirits of the world will do as he will; 
therefore he niak* s h:s religious ceremonies mimetic and per- 
sonates the nitire jM.wers. This is illustrated csj>cc>ally by the 
dances of the Mo«p;is t as described by Dr. Walter Fewkcs and 
others. I he dancers are drciuhcd to secure -.mmh! rains, the fire 

« 1 

w-'ikers perform to M-Liire .1 reasonable warmth, and the Tusayan 
dancers pant wh.te cloth tor the sake of snow, just as the 
Ashantee thinks th.it when lie sits, down the g«»ds sit, when he 
rises tlir ods ri-e, and when he dances the g<»ds all dance. We 
may al*o trace the mimetic m\*\ dramatic idea in the savage mask 
dar.t 1 s ami snal.e il.mci s ( and in the \arious dramatizations of 
the more udtanctd l'mhlos. and cwn in the various ceremonies 
and liturgies ot the more civilized nations. 



THE AZTALAN ENCLOSURE NEWLY DESCRIBED. 205 



THE ••AZTLAN" ENCLOSURE NEWLY DESCRIBED. 

By T. H. Lewis. 

In the early days of the Northwest, when this vast territory 
began to fill up with settlers from the East, one of the first points 
to attract the general attention of the scientists was an enclosure 
situated on the west side of the Crawfish River, in Jefferson 
County, Wisconsin. At that time, this newly-discovered enclos- 
ure was the largest and the most interesting object of the kind 
in that region; and to-day, after more than half a century has 
passed, there are none, in the country mentioned, which surpass 
it in size or approach it in unique design. 

This enclosure was given the traditionary name of "Aztalan" 
by N. F. Hyer, who wrote the first illustrated account of it, and 
which appeared in the Milwaukee Advertiser of February 25th, 
1S37. This was not, however, the first published account de- 
scribing the enclosure; for the above named paper states that 
there had been other accounts of it published in the Eastern 
pa[x.Ts, but that the editor had waited for a more authentic de- 
scription of the place. 

In January, 1843, Stephen Taylor published in Si/Iimans 
Journal of Seience an article, accompanied by a plat, which was 
furnished by a friend who had visited the place. In 1850, I. A. 
Lapham made a survey and wrote an elaborate description of it, 
which appeared in the "Antiquities of Wisconsin," published by 
the Smithsonian Institution in 1855. 

At the present time it is not possible to make a correct survey 
of the works, for the site has been under cultivation too long, so 
that the I^apham survey must stand, being as it is, the most 
elaborate one, and containing many of the minor details of the 
structure, which are not to be found on any of the other plats. 
Yet his survey is not entirely complete, as it does not show the 
platform mound located in the southeast corner, nor docs it 
show any portion of the embankment that formerly extended, 
for at least a portion of the way, along the bank of the river, and 
which may still be traced for a few rods at both the northeast 
and the southeast corners, and at intervals between the two 
points named. Whether the whole of the river front was defended 
by a continuous embankment or not is a problem that cannot 
now be solved, although Hyer and Taylor both show that there 
was such an embankment existing at the time of their examina- 
tion. A careful comparison of the Hyer and Taylor plats proves 
that as regards the principal embankments and mounds of the 



206 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

enclosure proper, that were then in existence, they agree with 
the Lapham plat, but in addition they show an extra platform in 
the northeast corner, as well as a continuous embankment along 
the river. Counting the projections— as such — at the northeast 
and southeast angles, the I Iyer plat has thirty-two; the Taylor 
plat thirty, and the I^ipham plat thirty-tour. 

The embankments on the east side of the river, as shown on 
the I^apham plat, are natural — they having been pushed up by 
the ice, and there are others both above and below along the 
river bank. The mounds shown on the same side of the river 
— opposite to the lower part of the enclosure — never existed, 
and it is difficult to explain why they appear on the plat. 

According to I^apham, the embankment forming the enclos- 
ure is six hundred and thirty-one feet long at the north end, 
fourteen hundred and nineteen feet long on the west side, and 
seven hundred feet on the south side, making the total length of 
the embankment twenty-seven hundred and fifty feet, and the 
space thus enclosed seventeen acres and two thirds. The major 
portion of the interior is on land which slopes toward the 
river, the western embankment extending along the edge of a 
ridge which terminates in a spur near the southwest corner of 
the enclosure. Near the end of this spur there are some auxil- 
iary embankments — having projections similar to those of the 
main enclosure — which were probably erected to strengthen this 
section, on account of the valley just beyond, from which the 
enclosure could have been approached to within a short distance 
without much danger. 

The base of the embankment at the northeast corner is about 
ten feet above extreme low water, and at the southeast corner 
at* ait six and one-half feet. The highest |>oint within the en- 
closure is at the southwest corner, and is about forty- four feet 
above low water. At the present time the embankments are 
from one and one- half to three and i>ne-half feet in height. The 
outer face of the embankment along the north side is from one 
to one and one- half feet higher th.in the opposite face on the 
inner side, whit h is caused by the land breaking off in a sloj>e 
toward the northeast; and the same is also true regarding the 
west halt of the southern embankment, the sIojk* in that case 
being toward the southeast The embankment alon^ the west 
side is the reverse of the others, being higher inside than out, 
the slo|>e of the land )>ein^ toward the east. 

In confirm ting the embankment, debris of various kinds was 
used, such as burned stones, boiling or hearth stones, broken 
jiottery. ashes and burned clay. The burned clay --called ''brick" 
by some 1 is mixed with ^rass and weed*, and gives the impression 
that it was formerly utilized for sume other purpose, and its 
useful ne ss having erased, that it was finally t lumped on the em- 
bankment as a part ot the filling. In places the fragments of 



THE A'ZTALAN ENCLOSURE NEWLY DESCRIBED. 207 

burned clay are from three to seven inches in depth, while at 
other points not a fragment could be found. But it is not 
in the embankments alone that this burned clay is met with, for 
it is scattered in all directions, both inside and outside the en- 
closure. 

The projections before referred to are built in the form of 
mounds intersecting the embankments, and they slope in all 
directions from a central point, according to their shape. They 
are from one to one and one-half feet higher than the embank- 
ment, and were built with some special object in view, which is 
not now apparent, although it is possible that they were burial 
places, for Mr. I^apham found human remains in the one at the 
northwest angle, and other explorers have had the same experi- 
ence in excavating some of the others. These projections may 
be divided into three classes, viz. : First, those of a circular form; 
second, the elliptical form, the ends of which are apparently of 
the same width, and the third, which may be described as being 
shaped like half of an egg — split in two lengthwise — the point 
of which in some instances extends outward, and in others the 
large end forms the projection. 

The two platform mounds on the west side of the enclosure 
are built on sloping land and are the highest on the side next 
to the river. The one in the northwest corner is, at the present 
time, about six feet in height on the east side, and the one in the 
southwest corner is ten or eleven feet in height on the east side. 
The platform mound in the southeast corner — as shown on the 
Hyer and Taylor plats — now averages about seven feet in height, 
the greatest elevation being on the side next to the river. The 
low parallelogram located in the northern part of the enclosure, 
near the river, is still traceable, and the east side is about two 
feet in height. Mr. Lapham docs not give the height of any of 
these mounds in his text — and the cross- sections on his plat are 
not clear — but as regards the larger ones, they probably do not 
vary more than a foot or so from the original height, although 
their angles have been materially modified by the plow. 

There are many excavations of i circular and elliptical form 
within the enclosure, and in some instances they look like a 
certain class of ruined dirt lodges, such as were formerly erected 
by the Mandan Indians. There is more or less debris within and 
around these excavations, an J in the center of some the old fire- 
places may still be traced, showing clearly that they were form- 
erly occupied as dwelling-places. There are various forms 
of these excavations, and evidences of numerous pits, but 
many of them have been modified or entirely destroyed by con- 
tinuous cultivation. Just south of the platform mound, in the 
northwest corner, much of the soil has been removed over a 
space exceeding a half acre, and at least a part of the material 
was used in the construction of the mound located in the south- 



208 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

cast angle of the enclosure. On this half acre there are several 
excavations, and the whole space was used for dwelling places; 
of which the burned earth and village debris, including burned 
stones, are the evidences on and in the ground. 

In the southern part of the enclosure, fronting the river, there 
is a wash or gullcy, in the side of which are two ancient fire* 
places. One of these is two feet beneath the surface, and con- 
tained ashes, charcoal, mussel -shells chert spalls, burned stones 
and fragments of pottery composed of clay and broken stone. 
The other fire-place was a foot and a half beneath the surface, and 
the contents were practically the same, but less in quantity. 

The fragments of pottery found on the site of Aztalan arc 
composed of broken stone and clay, sand and clay, and shell and 
clay. The colors used were yellow, brown, black, red, and a few 
fragments were of a brick color. In some instances the color 
extends nearly through the piece, with a finer coating on one or 
both sides, and in most instances the pieces are coated rather 
than painted. There are various designs of ornamentation, such 
as are made by indentation and incised lines, and the basket and 
net markings are also represented. 

Many relics have been found, from time to time, within and 
around the enclosure. Those of stone are axes, chisels, celts, 
arrow and spearheads, hand-hammers, disks, pij>cs, and a few 
shallow mortars. In copjicr, axes, awU, s|>car-hcads # knives and 
beads are represented. Beads and ornaments made from sea 
shells, and awls of horn and ot bone have also been found. 

In conclusion, it may safely be stated that this enclosure was 
built and occupied in prehistoric times as a fortified village or 
town-site, as is evidenced bv the various remains ot a former 
occupancy which have been exposed from time to time by culti- 
vation. An embankment twenty-two feet wide and five feet in 
height — figures given by I^apham — would make a very resecta- 
ble defense against .in enemy; and if palisaded, which it proba- 
bly was, as there are no gateways \i\ the embankment, the place 
would be almost impregnable. 



PRKHIftTORIC PEOPLES OF JAPAN. 209 



PREHISTORIC I'KOPLES OF JAPANS 
By Romvn Hitchcock. 

The origin of the Japanese people is an unsolved problem in 
ethnography. They are distinct from the peoples on the adja- 
cent coast of Asia, and also entirely different from the original 
inhabitants of the land. That they arc somewhat related to the 
early peoples of Corea is not improbable. There are ancient 
graves in Corea from which have been dug up vessels of crude 
pottery, that cannot be distinguished from those found in the 
old tombs or rock-built dolmens of Japan. These are all pre- 
historic remains, dating back into the period of myth and tradi- 
tion, to the time of the reputed first emperor, the famous Jimmu 
Tcnno, whose descent is traced directly from the Sun-goddess, 
the highest deity of the Shinto faith. The advent of Jimmu 
Tenno, according to the accepted chronology, was in the seventh 
century, B. C. The testimony of tradition clearly proves that he 
and his followers were invaders of a land whose inhabitants were 
ol a different race and strange. Moreover, it tells of two dis- 
tinct peoples who lived in the country, one a race of dwarfs, who 
had tails and lived in underground burrows or caves, the other 
a race of hairy savages whom they designated Ebisu. 

Archaeological research has confirmed these traditions in a 
remarkable manner. The existence of a race of dwarfs with tails 
has not indeed been confirmed. Even if we attribute the tails to 
the too vivid imagination of the early Japanese observer, himself 
no doubt something of a tale-bearer, we are still at a loss to 
know who were the dwarfs. We have evidence that there was 
a (x-ople once inhabiting northern Japan at least, who lived in 
half- underground earth-dwellings; but there are no indications 
that those people were small of stature, except that there are 
numerous allusions in old books to the people of northern Yezo, 
describing them as pit-dwelling dwarfs. Anutschin estimated 
their height at four and one-half feet, but upon what evidence I 
do not know. I shall show you some photographs of dwellings 
on the Island of Shikotan, off the eastern coast of Yezo, which, 
perhaps, represent a later form of the ancient pit-dwellings. In 
many parts of Yezo there may be seen large pits or depressions 
in the earth, usually circular or oval in shape, and ten to twenty 
feet across. The depressions are usually bordered by heaped up 
earth, so that the bottom is not much, if at all, lower than the 



•low -duct • n t an a ! irr*« <o The Alnot ol Yezo, before the Section of Ethnology ol 
the CJ. ..a** \.a.2r:i.* vf N. ICOCC*. 



210 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

■ 

general surface of the ground. Capt. T. W. Klackiston, well 
known as a traveler in Yezo and in China, first drew particular 
attention to these, and suggested that they were the remains of 
human habitations. This view is reasonable, and my own obser- 
vations tend to confirm it, although the evidence is mostly of a 
negative character. I have found such pits in many parts of the 
island, and hundreds of them in most excellent preservation on 
the Island ot Yeterof. beyond the town ol Shyana, on the north 
coast, where Capt. Hlakiston reported having secured some frag- 
ments of p-.ittery, but where my own digging yielded no results. 

If these pits are the remains of earth-dwellings, they must cer- 
tainly have belonged to a race that has passed away. We natur- 
ally associate them with the * 'dwellers under ground," the 
"dwarfs" or T.\:tth:-g!two of Japanese tradition. The absence 
of such remains on the larger island of Japan, in the local- 
ities where Jimmu Tennu first encountered them, is, perhaps, 
only a natural consequence of the activity of a large agricultural 
population. In Yezo and the Kuriles but few |>eople live, and 
they do not till the soil. 

Tradition of another kind is confirmatory ol this view. The 
Amos tell of a race of A"i'/v /v/-^///:/. who inhabited Yezo be- 
fore themselves, ami who were exterminated by them. These 
were likewise dweller^ im !er ground, and it is reasonable to 
siipposeth.il the piedeeesMirN ot tin Amos, and the 7 ' sHthi-gUfnc 
ot Japan tiaditiou. wen-, theielnfe, the same people; and that, as 
we follow th« rem. mis ..t th« ir dwellir..;^ northward into Yezo. 
and nil thioii.di the lili-.ii. and luiien Kurdes, w trace the rcm- 
nanS "1 .in aiion.'.in.i! i.ue, along the oiiir^ ni its last migra- 
tion, tit r xt;in t:> >n .iii-i oM:-. inn. 

St '.1, ai' ■•■! tho-« eai!\ pi-'-ph-s th: re iema:ns a halo of mvs- 

t'Ty t ■' ' ;■ ! r -ji» iui.it: ii t-i -Ive \\>u they an hirsute 

j> o; ■"• •* \\V|r- t!.- v « I ■.». 1 1 ! ■* ■* I)id th- v u: \'k- the decorated 
j-i-tt? iy •.*!*•:■ ii ■*■ t''::i ! :: u .iiiii til- n u- '.:ni! the pits, the same 
.!•» l- ! ■■:■.■; i:i •:.•■ :■:■■ 1 r. ■ m- -.■ -dii-l; h«. r. ■•» ' 

N w w i me !■■ tii-- I r i:-:i. the li.uiv -a\.i''es. There is no 
lisl'fj. uitv :m : :• :it \\ :ii, • ! :.■ -»■ w :Ii t!ie Amos . .\ :■ i dav Ol" these 
th' i»* are .iiiii .■ »;. • '. li\ :ii. f ::.«i-tl\ «i:i the :-. o:d ot Yezo. Hut 
w kn -a ii- 1. t-n-.-i.h ti: it they tnrm>. rlv lived in southern 
1 •-■.in \V.th::i i:>ti-ru time, tiirv wen- found m the north of 
ti.i* iii.iin lauds I :.i y have !■■" e\:d- nre enough uf their prcs- 
en- '■ in h«-i! h'-ap- -r kiti !.- :i middens, even as far south as 
K:.;shiu, and in the distribution ut ^e- -graphical names of Aino 
derivation. 

The s}it'!l-mo :nd-i contain human bones ol a character to 
indicate that thev bei-m/cd t ■• .Vims, the humerus and tibia be- 
in.: ili!t*:i-tl i«r pl.itycn'-mic. They also contain pottery of 
var: as tuMii". ■ ie ■ *r.i!v i ;n characteristic and very elaborate 
pat!* r-is. >;i-.!. ;. \ury h.i* been designated "Aino pottery-" 



PREHISTORIC PEOPLES OF JAPAN. 211 

But this pottery has always been a puzzle to me. The oldest 
Japanese pottery is found in the burial mounds. It is very rude 
in form and decoration, and differs in no respect from the se- 
pulchral pottery of Corea. The pottery of the shell-mounds, the 
so-called Aino pottery, is much older, yet it is much more 
elaborately and artistically decorated. How is it possible, if this 
pottery was made by the Ainos, as is supposed, that the early 
Japanese, when they came in contact with the Ainos, did not 
borrow something, at least, from the Aino designs, with which 
they must have been acquainted? The imitative character of 
the Jaj>ancsc would naturally lead us to believe that they would 
have done so, and their innate appreciation of beauty in form 
and decoration certainly would have caused them to prefer the 
Aino to the Corcan decoration. Is it not, therefore, possible, 
that so-called Aino pottery is not Aino at all? May it not be 
that this very elaborately decorated pottery is very much older 
than has been supposed, older than the Japanese graves and 
dolmens, so old, indeed, as to have been quite out of use at the 
time of the advent of the Japanese? It may have been buried in 
the shell-heaps of a people who were predecessors of the Ainos — 
the dwarfs or pit-dwellers if you will — then being driven into the 
far north by the Ainos, who did not know the potter's art. But 
then we bring in question also the connection between those 
shell-heaps and the Ainos. The flattened bones connect them 
with the Ainos, and if the bones arc Aino is not the pottery the 
same ? Hut is it possible to suppose that a people who had ac- 
quired such skill in forming and decorating pottery should have 
lost it absolutely, without a change of habitat, or in their modes 
of life, and in the midst of abundance ot the raw clay, the use of 
which they knew so well? 

I ask these questions; but I must leave to others the re- 
searches still necessary for a reply. So far as we can interpret 
history and archaeological research in Japan, it would appear 
that there was at one time a race of people, reputed to have been 
dwarfs, but on very doubtful evidence, who lived in half under- 
ground burrows or caves. These were succeeded by the Ainos 
who, perhaps, came from the north and exterminated the pit- 
dwellers. Then came the present Japanese, who drove the Ainos 
gradually toward the north, until now they arc found as only a 
remnant of a once numerous and powerful people, in the Island 
of Yezo. 



212 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



THK r()-BOC-TU AMONG THE HOPI. 

Sitcomaki, February 28, 1 894. 
Dkak Dr. ?»iATrni-:\\>: 

I forgot whether I ever told you of a society of occult medi- 
ciners anions the Hopi, called the lYi-boc-tii, eye- seekers ; they 
arc closely connected with the Po-wa-ka, sorcerers; originally 
I believe they were the same; but the eye-seekers are now 
wholly bencficient, and devoted to counteracting the evil of the 
malignant sorcerers. In some unaccountable way the society 
has been allowed to die out almost completely, for as near as I 
cao ascertain there are only three surviving members in Tusayan; 
one in the village on the Hast Mesa; one in Mueoninovi, and 
one in Oraibt; this latter being one of the prisoners you had at 
Wingate. As with the Navajo, the belief is quite common with 
the Hopi that the sorcerers effect their mischief by shooting a 
missile from the magic bow into the body of the person they de- 
sire to afflict. A good many years ago I witnessed the eye- 
seekers operating upon an afflicted man, on which occasion they 
apparently cut out a large tlint arrow head from his breast. It 
may interest you to hear a curious personal experience I had 
with the eye-seeker who still lives in this village. His name is 
Si-ky.i 1 lo-nau-uh, Yellow Hear, and at the t>cginning of the 
present month he came in to see me, saying that he had heard 
I had been ill, and expressed kindly symjiathy. A neighbor, 
known as Toby, and a young Lid that I sometimes employ, were 
also in my quarters at the time, and Yellow Hear sat down with 
them and smoked, and in a friendly way inquired concerning my 
illness. As well as my hoarseness |>crmittcd I told him. and in 
response to his enquiries told him that I had t.iken some I'a-han 
na-hu. American medicine, and some herb dunks that a neigh- 
bor had brought. He asked if I would not like to have him 
look and see what ailed me. tlii-i not at all in a si»licito«is manner, 
but rather .is a friendly suggestion. Toby urged me to make 
the request, anil as it occurred to me I might thus have an <>por- 
t unity of" seeing .1 new phase of the eye -seekers* methods, I 
complied. Hut I was in .1 listless, hah torpid condition, not at all 
in good plight tor observing with accuracy. 

As a preliminary, a gilt of nominal value must always be made 
to the Hopi mcduiiHT before he begins, usually followed by 
more substantia! gifts afUr he has finished; but differing from 
the Navajo, the Hopi mediciner assumes the utmost indifference 
on this |K)int, and it is considered il! manners to discuss gifts or 
their value before hi 111. In very marked contrast to the Navajo 
Shaman, the \U.\*i Shaman takes whatever gifts are tendered 
him without a simple comment. 



THE PO-BOC-TU AMONG THE HOPI. 213 

A piece of cloth or calico stuff is usually the first gift, but as 
1 had none in my quarters, Toby ran to his own house and re- 
turned with a few yards which I gave to Yellow Bear. To begin 
with, he got one of my bowls and filled it nearly full of water, 
placed it between me and the fire, before which I was lying on 
a pallet, and then sat down beside me. Opening a small pouch 
that he constantly wears, he took out four quartz and other 
pebbles, typical of the emblematic cardinal colors, although I 
could not see much difference between them, but they repre- 
sented Yellow, for the northwest; Blue, for the southwest; Red 
for the southeast, and White, for the northeast. Beginning with 
the yellow pebble, he dropped them into the bowl, one at a 
time, with low muttered prayers to Bear, Badger, Horn-toad and 
Wii-yak LVi-hii, Broad Star (Aldcbaron). The prayers were to 
this effect : "Steve, our friend, lies here ill and speechless, may 
be you will show me what the ill is, may be you will show me 
what has cut off his voice" He then crushed a small* fragment 
of dry herb roots between his fingers and sprinkled it upon the 
surface of the water in the bowl, and this he told me made the 
n.i-ku-yi. charm water. He now took Irom his pouch a beauti- 
ful leaf-shaped knife, about three inches long, made of a pale 
green stone of compact texture, and laid it on the pallet close to 
my left side. He then drew from the pouch an irregular shaped 
lump of quart/, crystal, about the size of a walnut, retaining it in 
his hand. 

"Now," said he to me, "take off your shirt and sit up, and I 
will try to see what makes you ill." He seated himself on the 
foot of the pallet, which brought him under the window in the 
southwest wall, while I sat up on the other end of the pallet, 
facing him. Taking the crystal between finger and thumb, some- 
times one hand, sometimes the other, he placed it close to his 
eye and looked intently at me; then he would hold the crystal 
at arm's length toward me ; then he would bend over so as to 
bring it clo^e up to me; and thus he swayed back and forth, in 
silence, occasionally making passes with his arms to and fro and 
towards me, for about four or five minutes. Suddenly he reached 
over me and pressed the crystal against my right breast, and 
just up«»n the region of a quite severe pain, and which I may 
have described to him; but whether or no he located the seat of 
the pain exactly. He at once put the crystal in his pouch, and 
told me t<> lie down again, and after I had done so he took up 
the pretty green knife and began sawing the skin up and down, 
/. i\, lengthw.se, over the spot uhere he had set the crystal. 

It was a mere scarification, just enough to draw blood, which 
being effected, he put the knife back in his pouch, and sipped a 
little of the charm-water. He then bent over mc, and placing 
his lips againtt the wound, he exhaled twice upon it, and the 
effect was to send an icy chdl through me from head to foot. 



214 THE AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 

As I have said, my ill condition prevented me from exercising 
any nice discernment, but the occurence impressed me vividly, 
and it is that I seek to tell as precisely as may be. After each 
of these exhalations he raised himself on his knees, and breathed 
ostentatiously from me; he again bent over me, and placing his 
lips again on the wound he inhaled twice, no marked sensation 
following the inhalation. But after the second time he carried 
my left hand to his mouth and spat into my palm an abomina- 
ble looking, arrow-shaped, headless sort of centipede. It was 
about an inch and a quaiter long; of a dark-brown color, and 
seemed to be covered with a visoid substance; it had no head 
that I could make out. but its legs certainly moved, and it seemed 
to be a living insect. This, said Yellow Hear, is Tii'-kyai-ni (that 
causes sickness); it is also called po-wa-ka ho-adta, sorcerer, his 
arrow; as I understood him, it may come to one through mis- 
hap, but usually it is sent ishot) by a sorcerer; it bores through 
the flesh until it reaches the heart, which it also bores and causes 
death. Yellow Hear only permitted me to look at it briefly, be- 
cause it must be instantly carried forth to the cliff edge and 
there exorcised. This rite he performed alone, and I have not 
felt in trim t<> take up the subject for full disclosure. On coming 
in again he made me drink part of the charm- water, and gave 
the rest to mv two friends, who sat awe-struck, and as thev 
afterwards confessed, rat'ur badlv .scared. He then munched 
between his teeth the dried roots uf four herbs, spitting them 
into a bowl of cold water, and the compound was very fragrant 
and somewhat mucilaginous. This he told me to drink from 
time to time for four days, which I did, and I really received 
much benefit, hut whether from the cold infusion or the scarifica- 
tion I am still in doubt, .it .my rate the pains in my chest ceased. 
The fragrant herb root to which Yel'.ow Hear attaches the 
most im|H>rtance, and which seems to be a univers.il panacea of 
the llopi, entering into almost all their her!) infusions, is called 
Hon fi a -pi. Hear charm, and which, through Hr I*"ewkes, I had 
identified by a Harvard botanist who gives it as </>/«>■ <ru\ir f\\':us 
(Rothiock'. Yours verv truly, A. M Sir.riiKV 

Mr. Stephen, the writer of the above letter, died in April, 1 894. 
The following note, winch was contained in the same letter, shows 
what he was engaged in and wliat his hopes were as to finishing 
the work: "I think that with one more year up here I will have 
sufficient dat.i tor a comprehensive monograph, but an interrup- 
tion r.o\v would really Ik: a disruption of my scheme of work 
and would ; ;;st about ruin me" 



A CHOCTAW MIGRATION LEGEND. S15 



A CHOCTAW MIGRATION LKGEND. 

By II , S. Haliiekt. 

According to an old tradition, now perhaps utterly forgotten 
by the present Choctaws of Mississippi, the ancestors of the 
Choctaws and Chickasaws lived, in primeval times, in a far west- 
ern country, under the rule of two brothers named Chahta and 
Chikasa. In process of time, their population becoming very 
numerous and their territory overcrowded, they found it difficult 
to procure subsistence in that land. Their prophets thereupon 
announced to them that far to the east was a country of fertile 
soil and with abundance of game, where they could live in ease 
and plenty. The entire population resolved to make a journey 
eastward in search of that happy land. In order to more easily 
procure subsistence on their route, the people marched in several 
divisions, of a day's journey apart. A great prophet marched at 
thnr head, bearing a pole, which, every evening, on camping, he 
planted erect in the earth in front of the camp. The next morn- 
ing, the pole was always seen leaning in the direction they were 
to travel that day. After the lapse of several moons, they 
arrived one day at the mound on Nanih Waiyah Creek, where 
they camped for the night. The prophet erected the sacred pole 
at the base of the mound. The next morning the pole was seen 
standing erect and stationary. This was interpreted as an omen 
from the Great Spirit that the long-sought-for land was at last 
found. It so happened the very evening the advanced party 
camped at Nanih Waiyah Creek that a party, under Chikasa, 
crossed the creek and camped on the eastern side. That night 
a ^rcat ram fell and it nined for several days. In consequence 
of this, all the lowlands were inundated, and Nanih Waiyah 
Creek ami the other tributaries of Pearl River were rendered 
impassable. After the subsidence of the waters, messengers were 
sent across the creek to bid Chikasa's party return, as the oracu- 
lar p<>lc had proclaimed that the long-sought-for land was found 
and the mound was the center of this land. Chikasa's party, 
however, regardless of the weather, had proceeded on their 
journey, and the rain having washed all traces of their march 
off the ^rass, the messengers were unable to follow them up, and 
so returned to camp. Meanwhile, the other divisions in the rear 
arrived at the Nanih Waiyah mound and learned that here was 
the center of their new home, and their long pilgrimage was at 
last finished. Chikasa's party, after their separation from their 
brethren under Chahta, moved on the Tombigbce and eventually 



216 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

became a separate nationality. In this way the Choctaws and 
the Chickasaws became two disiinct, though kindred, nations. 

This tradition was related to the writer ten years ago by Mr. 
James Welch, of Neshoba County, he receiving it from the Rev. 
Peter Folsom, a Choctaw from the nation west, who was em- 
ployed in 1X82 by the Biptists of Mississippi to labor as a 
missionary among the Choctaw people in Slississippi. Mr. 
Folsom stated that soon after finishing his education in Kentucky 
one day in 1S33 he visited the Xanih Waiyah mound with his 
father, and while at the mound his father related to him the above 
migration legend of his people. 

We have, however, never yet met this legend in its fullness 
among our Mississippi Choctaws. All, however, look upon the 
Xanih Waiyah mound a< the birth-place and cradle of their 
race. For there, they say. Aba Inki, the Father above, ages ago, 
fashioned the first Choctaws out of red clav at the base of this 
sacred mound. An old Choctaw once told the writer that im- 
mediately after the creation of their forefathers, the Great Spirit 
divided them into two iksa or kinships, the Kashapa Okla and 
the Okla in holahta, or liattak in holahta. Stationing one on 
the north and the other on the west side of the mound, the Great 
Spirit then gave them the law of marriage, which they were for- 
ever to keep inviolate. This law was that children were to belong 
to the iksa of their mothers, and that one must always marry 
into the opposite iksa. By this law, a man belonging to the 
Kashapa Okla must marry a woman of the Okla in holahta. 
The children of this marriage belong, of course, to the iksa ol 
their mother, and whenever they marry it must be into the oppo- 
site iksa In like manner, a man belonging t<» the Okla in 
holahta must marry .1 woman <>f the Kashapi < >kla, and the 
children o: this marriage, from being Kashapa < >kla. must marry 
into the Okla in holahta Such was the t'hoctaw law of mar- 
riage, v\ huh thev attribute to divine authority. The iksa lived 
promiscuously thr"ii r ;h<»ut tin- nation, and as every one knew to 
what lk^.i lie briori^' d. n • matrimonial mistake could possibly 
00 ur. This division «-t th'- Choctaw people into two iksa ex- 
isted i«i Mississippi t\. wn to a very rr* ent period — in fact, in 
some h»i .ilities, it is s.tid. 1! i> not even yet extinct, but is slowly 
dying «>ut und- r the inrl-.ienc*- ■»!" ChrMiamtv, education and 
other res .!»s of t ntact with the white race 

T- ■ th-tsf- r« .idefs ..; I !i Ami-.:- \\AmI" m- 1 \\ who would 
like t • kn-»w m r- ■ ■! th itr t.imi d X'amh Waiyah m<».jnd and 
its s.j:r ■■•n-iiM^, a- *.\ .u'.! 1 :tc them t«» .n\ a- i:r.i!e description 
c--::ti.n' : :-i V ■ \ I II. N 1 M. ■•! I in. Ami *. :■ \\ Am;-/, akian, 
fit: \ v- mi'.i f , 1 • ,1 . 



8AB.KAN1SM OB SKY WORSHIP IN AMERICA. 217 



SAB.KANISM OR SKY WORSHIP IX AMERICA. 

By Stephen D. Peet. 

Wc have considered several of the aboriginal religions of 
America, and have found in them striking resemblances to the 
ancient religions of the east. We now come to a system which 
is purely indigenous, having no trace whatever of historical con- 
nection or traditionary descent, and yet the resemblance is very 
striking, even more striking than any other system. We refer 
to the system which is called, in the east, sabaeanism or sky 
worship, but which, in America, has received no special name. 
This is, however, one of the most prominent aboriginal religions 
and one which has the richest store of symbolism. Wc design 
to take this as a special subject for study, but shall first consider 
some of the elements which were common in America and in 
the far east. The following are the points which we shall en- 
deavor to bring out : I . It has been regarded as one of the earliest 
of the historic faiths, but in reality had its origin in prehistoric 
times and was carried over into the historic age with all its con- 
ceptions fully dcvelojxrd, and soon became very prominent and 
wide spread. 

2. It was only one of a scries, having been preceded by 
others which were ruder, and followed by those which were 
more advanced. Max Miiller, the great ethnologist, claims that 
**the worship of the bright heavens" preceded even sun worship 
and the belief in the personal divinities, but it was, at least on 
this continent, preceded by totemism or the worship of animals, 
by anamism, fetich ism, and several other systems. 

v It was a religion which appeared in connection with a certain 
stage of growth, and was peculiar to a grade of society. It was, 
in fact, the religion of the agricultural races, and always appeared 
in connection with a partial civilization, the pictures, images and 
allusions always having regard to those customs which follow 
the hunter state, and are peculiar to the sedentary tribes, the sun 
and moon ami heavenly bodies being the natural divinities of 
such |>enple. 

4. The conception was common that the sky was divided into 
diOerent "houses*' or celestial spaces, which were filled with dif- 
ferent divinities, the nature powers proving servants to them. 
There was in some cases a tendency to transfer animal divinities 
to the sky and make them preside over the celestial spaces, and 
to trace out constellations in the sky which should be the pic- 
tures of animals — the serpent, the dragon, great bear and other 
nondescrij>t creatures having their place among the stars. 



218 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

5. Another conception was that the sky was a dome, resem- 
bling the roof of a house, or rather the hemispherical form of the 
tent, that it was divided into four quarters, the cardinal points 
making passageways between the four quarters, but the houses 
containeil different stories or terraces, the upper stories being 
occupied by divinities and the lower stories by human beings, 
the correspondence between the celestial and terrestrial spaces 
being very complete.* 

f>. There was a "symbolical geography" among all of the 
sky-worshipers, which divided the heavens above and the land 
below after a particular model, every city, town, village or tribal 
territory being so divided into squares as to make the map of 
the earth correspond to the map of the sky, each part or square 
being sacred to a particular divinity, national or tutelar. Kven 
the land divisions were modeled after and corresponded to the 
divisions of the sky. Kvery city or town, or the entire terri- 
tory, was divided into squares, which made each a great temple, 
the chief residence of the divinity being in the center of all. 
The four divine regions of the Chaldeans were not only the 
abodes of the g«>ds, but were the places where the gods and men 
met together. The ChaMean monarch was called the king of 
the four regit >ns of heavens, having his seat of empire in the 
central region, whilr the central square in the map or chart sym- 
bolized the "soul of the World" exactly as in China the palace of 
the celestial empire was in the center of a grc.it square and the 
throne was surrounded by nine terraces, which symbolized the 
heavens ;\i\\\ the horizon. 

7. The peopling ot the sky with personal divinities was another 
element in the skv worship, which was evcrvwhcic the same. 
Sab.ranisiu in America always carried the thought up into the sky 
anil made the spaces there to Ik: j >eop!ed by supernatural powers 
and divinsties, though the- divinities differed according to the 
locality. With the ruder tribes these divinities were animal 
fetiches; with the more advanced they were per -onal divinities, 
.similar to th->M- persons who had been warriors and kings, and 
gre.it nun. culture heroes. A very great resemblance exists 
between the native American mythology and that which pre- 
vailed in c!,hMc lands, though the names anil exploits of the 
heroes differ greatly. There was no such character as Hercules 
known in America These heroes became national divinities. 
With many of the nations there was a tendency to make an 
axis, which sup)>ortcd the sky, pass through the center of their 
habitat 

S Through this conception of the sky being the place where 
divinities and men met together, there came ti» l>e a very smgu- 

• \- ','l'n ';<.!,■,: ■• ,-.n i^i'.irirj ( | 1 i« * « ■ * a* f; t « . ■ :i .. Q :» >■!. 
».!•-. * r '. K .' 1. • 1 rv .',,• .C4 t > I i '.: ■; 4 r . e. * *«• t:.tf rift!. ■!. . '. «&■ 



SAB.KANlSM OR f*KY WORSHIP IN AMERICA. 219 

lar standard of kinship and ol child training. A* in the case 
of totem ism, the child was introduced into the clan and tribe at 
birth, always taking the name and sign from the mother, rather 
than the father, but received its individual name alter fasts and 
dreams, and particular ceremonies by which it came under the 
care and guardianship of a particular animal divinity, so in the 
case of S.ib.eanism the child must pass through certain ordeals 
and ceremonies, in order to partake of the supernatural gilts, the 
emblems of the nature powers and the heavenly bodies being 
very prominent in the ceremonies. One could not find his proper 
position in the "cosmos" until he had passed through the doors of 
the heavenly houses and touched the boundaries of the sky, and 
apprehended his dependence upon the nature divinities. 

y The prevalence of sacred mysteries and -secret societies is 
owi>*g to the sky worship as much as to any other cause. As 







in totemi*m, the animal divinities visited the lodges and bestowed 
su[K-rn.it ura! gifts upon the candidates, the priest shooting the 
charm or power into the body trom the medicine bag. so the 
divinities cif the sky were supposed to visit the lodges or kivas, 
or sweat houses, and bestow the heavenly gifts. These were 
sometimes symbolized by the plumed serpent as a rain god. 

10. The system of divination and magic was connected with 
sky wurship. This system was very extensive at the east, and 
prevailed in Central America. It is supposed to have introduced 
the calendar system and the hieroglyphics, but covered these with 
an air of mystery and made them difficult to understand, in order 
that the jwnvcr of the priests might be kept over the people. 

it. Another interesting feature of Sabxanism was that it 
guarded the door to the future life, and held the passap/e between 
the present and the future. In Egypt and the east there was an 



2-JO 



THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



especial tradition in reference to the state of darkness or of light, 
the passage of the soul across the water, the weighing of the 
soul* and the reading of the records and the judgments of the 
divinity. See Fig. 1. The ceremonies at death had regard to 
this belief. So in all lands, and among all tril>es who had reached 
the condition of sky worshipers, there was a similar belief. The 
destiny of the soul hereafter was in the hands of those who offer 
the sacrifices and who had access to the celestial spaces. 

I*. The most important feature of sabawnism in America was 
the system ol orientation. This resulted in peculiar su|K. a p*ti- 
tions about the cardinal points, the sacred colors, the number 
four, the different elements, the nature powers, the various styles 
of the calendar system, the customs of housebuilding in stages, 
and connected with this .ilso were many of the customs, feasts, 
dances, religious ceremonies, dramatizations, sand {Minting s even 
personal decorations and ornaments. Orientation was the all 
important factor in the symbolism of sky worship. Such was 
the character of saba?anistn or sky worship as it existed in Amer- 
ica. Such were the elements of which it was composed. I*ct 
us then look to the various illustrations i»r exhibitions, as found 
in different localities on this continent. 

I. Let us first take up the customs and the traditions found 
among the Indian tribes ot the Mississippi Valley. In these we 
disco\er a skv worship which introduced .in elaborate svmboh- 
cal geography and many sacred mysteries, and at the same time 
gave ^ re.it significance to their customs and traditions, and so 
nude them especially worthy ol study. I. We begin with the 
Mandans, a tribe of Indians now extinct, but which once hail an 
elaborate symbolism which seems to have been based upon sky 
Worship. Catlm. the celt br.ited painter, has desinhed their 
customs and dances, and the initiation ol their warriors. Me 
was impressed with the resemblance of their traditions to the 
S*npture story of the creation and th*. deluge, and has descrd>cd 
the sacred lodge as a "lug canoe." and drnparei! one »■! the charac- 
ters to the Noah ol the Scnptuies. The ceremony itself was pre- 
cede d by a great dance oi f» ast.in which the story of the creation 
Was dramati/cd, hut minted with other symbols and customs 
whsi h were peculiar t ■■ the Mandans themselves. The mystery 
lodge, which I'atlin calls the big canoe, was kept closed during 
the year, bit at a paitn ular hmmhi and a particular d.iy ot the 
year it is opened !• »r the :n:!iat'»iy ceremony * In this sacred 



.1' 

■ 

it ■■; 

r ' 



•f 



• <■ . 



■: ■ <■ n i M 

■ ■ • ■. • : '»!.i~l 

<« i r* lei 

• " «- •■ I «■!■ *r r ! ,r* 

: ■ » \ • »> hi 

»■ 

* t . . . '. • i - ■ • t ; au*. 



Tt 



• «. 



HAB.KASISM OR PKY WORSHIP IS AMERICA. 221 

drama the first scene was as follows: A strange person, painted 
with white clay, covered with a robe of four white wolf-skins, 
wearing a splendid head-dress of two raven-skins, carrying in 
his left hand a large pipe, which he guards sacredly, approaches 
the mystery lodge and opens it. On the next morning he leads 
the young men who are candidates into the lodge, and introduces 
them to the medicine man, the master of ceremonies, and pre- 
sents to him the medicine pipe*, and afterward disappears. 

In the lodge were four articles of great veneration. They 
were sacks in the shape of large tortoises,! which contained 
waters from the four corners of the world, very ancient; the 
water had been contained in them since the "settling down of 
the waters." Outside of the lodge there were strange ceremonies, 
as follows: eight men, divided into four pairs, took their positions 
on the four sides of the big canoe, representing the four cardinal 
points, each having buffalo horns on his head and hair on his 
feet, with a rattle in his right hand and a white rod or staff in 
his left hand, and carrying on 
his back a bunch of green 
willow boughs,; These rep- 
resented the cardinal points. 
Between each group was an- 
other figure engaged in the 
same dance, with a similar staff 
and rattle, wearing a kilt ol 
eagle's quills and a splendid 
head-dress. The bodies of 
two of them were painted black, with white spots, to represent 
the firmament, or night, and the white spots to represent the 
stars. Two were painted red, with white streaks, to repre- 
sent the day and the ghosts which the morning rays were 
chasing away. These persons carry on a dance in the pres- 
ence of the whole people. On the first day they dance once 
to each of th«: cardinal points, on the second day twice, on the 
third day three times, and on the fourth day four times. By the 
side of the "big canoe" arc two men with the skins of grizzly 
bears thrown over them, which are approached by two men who 
represent bald eagles. The bears are continually growling for 
food, but the bald eagles dart upon them and carry away their 
food. At the end of the dances the evil spirit appears, strangely 
clad, painted black, with white rings, white around his mouth 
and red teeth, having a hideous appearance, and giving the most 
frightful shrieks and screams, and dashes through the village and 
enters the terrified group. But the master of ceremonies holds 
the medicine pii>c before him and holds him immovable under 




222 TIIK AMERICAS ANTIQMAHIAN. 

his charm. He is finally driven off and disappears in the west. 
All <>f these are represented in the painting and are copied into 
the plate, which, if studied, will reveal the prominence o! the 
symbolism in the dances and festivals. 

The initiation of the warriors follows this ceremonv. It was a 
fearful ordeal, for it was attended with great sufferings. The 
flesh from each shoulder and from each breast was cut, and 
skewers placed under it; cords lowered from the top of the lodge 
were fastened to the skewers; the body was raised by these and 
suspended from the ground, anil then was turned faster and faster 
until, by fainting under the agony, the person hung apparently a 
still and lifeless corpse, and the medicine bag drops from his 
hand, and he is finally let down. As soon as he has strength 
enough to rise on his hands and feet he drags his body around 
the lodge, and places the fore- finger and the little finger of the 
left hand <>n the rude altar, to be chopped off with a blow of the 
hatchet, as a sacrifice to the (ire.it Spirit. After this the buffalo 
sku'.N .md weights are attached to the flesh and they were pre- 
pared for the last r.ice, which consisted in their dragging their 
bodies with all possible speed around the big canoe, until their 
muscles gave way and they wire freed from the weights. The 
dance is more symbolic than the initiatory ceremonies, yet both 
were s gmticant.* See I'lates. 

That skv worship was involved in this nte will be shown bv 
the fat t that the symbols of tin- l..«|:t and darkness, four jwunts 
of tin- co::.pa-*s t \\\ r seas- .-is, the stais. iiy- ■ »t the sun, ot the 
earth, tli-.- -kv, the !:?■.• ••! m. in and beast, weir m.i !e prominent 

9 m 

in !h»- • rn niony, all of th» m be in • -..;•:■ nit ■■! sup -rn.itur.il 
beings v. ho pn ■ ■-:■ !•■• ! over the nature : ov. i - .in.i th-n i>\\.\\ 
space-.. Th;s w il! be >« « n !imn the N »!lo\s in,; e ir« .111 «tatices w h . h 
atten !ii! the ^tia'i.v !o:m-, and which ^eeiri' d to hive alius-.. in 
To th> sky i!:\:mt:! s and 1 1 1 ■ ■ cel'-stial *p.i' ■ s / :,# mm a:»* sc- 
leiteibvth'- N- i::«iiik-!i :» k a nah. "tiie i:r^t ■ r on'v mm. to 
»Iean^' and pic; .ir< tin m- di- me lodge tor the oct.t^.iii — ine he 
calls ti.iiti tin* '.* '.'•': |-ift ■■! tli- \ ili.ige. oiii- tr «m the 1 ••.!.'. 0:1c 
Irom tin- . :«.'■. and •»!;« fr ■ irn the .-. f -*. # The \:i? sack -» • ■! water, 
in th»* !■ »r 111 o! ..ir.'e t'-rto;.- ^, rest:: 1 . ; oil the floor >■! the l"d.;c 
and before di - lib- ■!. w.-uld -eem to be typ:» 1! "1 the t ur dr. is- 
1 'iis .-! the earth, an-l also the ' :,/ buffalo, and the ' ■:»* human 
skulls resting on ti:« tl "T « -! the same 1-dge.thc f ur couples of 
dancers :n the"! ;ll dance, as beiore ■!• scribed, and aUo the r ur 
intervening dancer s in the same dani e, and th»" fsur sacrifices of 
black and blue 1 loths o\er the door of the medicine lodge s\m- 
bnl:/'i! the division-* uf the skv I he colors with which the 



4' 






• « ■ • . . » ». 



» *■ t ■' :. '! ■.■•■• r '.?■.• ■.*?■» *:. *. let fr ft ■■. |*;c .-jT.p 
■:.•■••! • - »* ; ■ • » » ■ « ' • ■ ■; ;*• t 1. »r 1 r r JrrAtn 
* : .. ' *.' ~ . if ' ■• s ■ 1 ? ! .tr am « . i. 11 hy 



.:.!f I . : ! terra : ' <« 



8AB.EANI8M OR 8KY WORSHIP IN AMERICA. 223 

bodies were decorated symbolized the colors of the sky; other 
objects .symbolize the different elements, and the whole ceremony 
was a dramatization under the lead of a secret society, not only 
of the creation and the deluge, but also of the traditions about 
the animal gods and the supernatural divinities which ruled the 
earth and the sky. 

2. We notice that the same superstitions prevailed among the 
Kskimos and the Ojibwas. In the belief of the Ojibwas there is 
a place of shadows, a hereafter and a shadowy spirit; each per- 
son also had a guardian spirit, or tutelar demon, who appears, 
after a fast of a number of days, in a dream, generally in the 
shape of a bird or animal. The future course of life is marked 
out by the dream, exactly as in the ancient world it was marked 
out by the horoscope, or the situation of the stars. There is a 
chart which represents the sky worship of the Ojibwas. In this 
wc find the mida tree, which symbolized the spiritual power, 
the wabeno tree, the great spirit filling all space with his beams 
and lighting the world by the halo of his head. The hawk is 
the guardian spirit, the charmed arrow, the sacred dish, the 
stuffed crane, the ghost lodge. The great spirit begins and ends 
the chant. This first figure was that of a bird in the lodge, the 
last is a figure of the face, or sun, under the arch of the sky.* 

3. The tribes situated in the Gulf States also had a system of 
symbolism which was based upon sky worship and which intro- 
duced a symbolical geography into their village and influenced 
even their architecture and the arrangement* of their houses, 
trib.il organizations, their feasts and dances. The following is 
the description given by Bart ram of their public square and 
council house: "The public square is the highest part of the 
town. It consists of four square buildings of one story*, so as to 
form an exact rectangle, covering half an acre. One of these is 
the council house, where the chief or Mico decides cases and 
receives ambassadors, This building is divided into two parts, 
the back j>art jxrrfectly dark, with three small arched apertures 
opening into it. This is a sanctuary, where they deposit all the 
sacred things, the im|>erial standard, the calumet, rattles. The 
front of the building is divided into three apartments. The 
pillars supporting the front arc formed in the likeness of speckled 
seqK-nts climbing upwards. The other buildings which compose 
the square are decorated with paintings, sculptures and hiero- 
glyphics, men having heads of some kind of animals, bear, wolf, 
fox, turkey, ducks and deer, and again these creatures have 
human heads. The rotunda is different from the public square; 
this is built upon a conical mound and has a conical roof. 



•An tJ.fr . J. art ).*• t>een furnished b? I>r. W. II. H-itltr.an. which represented the Cle- 
at: >n t \ an ".>r.entated" t:ri'.e. the initiation by four rectangular !.*lge». a! •.> orientated, 
tf.e.t eutrar.i-r* g..ar !«■■! b\ serpents and animals, the "end •>( I:fe* by a circle, and the 
"tut .rr .:lc ' \ > a 9.4 ..ate 1 «ige. anj a circle f<»r a "gh >st 1 xige. ' and the path of the dead 
bcKtcca lhc:r. 



224 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

There is, in the center of it, a post or pillar. Around this post 
the spiral circle of fagots was placed, the circle of faggots turn- 
ing from right to left, extending to a distance of ten or twelve 
feet from the center, rising a foot or eighteen inches from the 
ground. This spiral circle was lighted at the time of an opening 
of the council. The blaze creeps around the center pillar, follow- 
ing the course of the sun, illuminating the entire chamber. 
When the fire burns out the council ceases. After the illumina- 
tion takes place the warriors are seated on their sofas in three 
ranks, the king in front and the young warriors to the rear. 
The great war chief's seat is to the left hand of the king, the 
ciders and head men to the right. The king smokes the great 
pipe, puffing the whiff to the four cardinal points. It is then 
carried to the different persons and smoked by them in turn."* 

The account which Bartram has given of one of the dances is 
very suggestive. The dance was held in the rotunda. In this 
dance the musicians were seated near the great pillar, where was 
the central fire, but around the building was a row of seats, one 
above the other, like an amphitheater. A company of girls, hand 
in hand, dressed in clean, white robes, and ornamented with beads, 
began to sing their responses in a gentle, low, sweet voice, and 
formed themselves in a semicircular file or line in two ranks, back 
to back, facing the spectators and musicians, moving slowly 
round and round. Afterward a company of young braves, painted 
and ornamented with silver bracelets, gorgets and wampum, 
moccasins and high waving plumes in their diadems, formed 
themselves in a semi-circle or rank. There was something sin- 
gular and diverting in their step and motion. The motion began 
in one end of the semi-circle, the dancers rising up and down, 
and continued to the other end. At the same time, and in the 
same motion, the dancers moved obliquely, so that a revolving 
circle was formed by the complex movement. At stated times 
a grand or universal movement instantly occurred, each rank 
turning to right and left, taking each other's places, accompanied 
with a sudden and universal elevation of the voice in a shrill, 
sharp whoop. Whether the motion of the heavenly bodies was 
symbolized by this dance or not. it was a very significant cere- 
mony and one which was carried out with great exactness and 
managed with inconceivable alertness and address. Bartram 
gives no interpretation of the dance or of the arrangement of 
the houses or villages, or of the other customs which he observed, 
but Me imagine that all of these buildings were orientated and 
arranged after the model of the celestial spaces, that the rotunda 
symbolized the dome of the sky and the spiral fire symbolized 
the motion of the sky, that the dances even symbolized the 
ojxrmng and the shutting of the day, and that the system of sky 



' / / 









SAB.f.AMSM OR SKY WORSHIP IN AMERICA. 



»3 



worship will account for all these customs and ceremonies. We 
have nu record that there were secret societies and sacred mys- 
teries anions these tribes, but a natural inference is that all of 
these ceremonies were under the direction of such a society. 
There is no doubt that there was an esoteric significance to all 
these customs and that they embodied the myths and traditions 
which had regard to the sky divinities, myths which resemble 
those held by the Cherokecs. 

II. We next turn to the ancient Mound-builders. We have 
already referred to different religious systems which prevailed 
among them.* We have shown that animal worship or totcmism 
prevailed in one district; fire worship in another; the water cult 
in another: the moon cult in another, and the solar cult in still 
another. The thought no* before us is that sky worship was 
the predominant religion of the Mound-builders and these local 
cults were the component 
i»rts of the more general 
system, i. As evidence of 
this we would refer to the 
relics which have been dis- 
covered in the mounds, es- 
pecially those situated in 
the Ohio Valley and the 
Gulf States, a region which 
was occupied by the sun 
worshipers. Among these 
relics we notice many shell 
gorgets in which there are 
circles, and in the circles, 
discs and dots and cres- 
cents, the arrangement of 
the figures on the concave shell gorgets suggesting the thought 
that there was an attempt to make them represent a map of the 
sky with the sun, moon and stars filling the four celestial spaces. 
See Fig. 3. There are coiled serpents with the bodies divided 
into four parts by concentric circles, other concentric circles 
forming the eye, the concave filled with various arches (see 
Fig. 41 suggesting that there was a hidden astrology contained 
in them. There are also spider gorgets which have circles and 
crosses and bars upon the back, zigzag lines between the mandi- 
bles, all of them symbols of the nature powers, the number lour 
being preserved, ami the whole arrangement making them sug- 
gestive of a chart. The same may be said of the bird gorgets, 
though in these the spaces are rectangles rather than circles. They 
arc all suggestive of a symbolical geography which had to do 
with the sky as well as the earth. 

Our supposition is that they represent the motion of the 




Fig. j.—lfM.i«< ttiiMm' Hap ^ <A* my 



22fi THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

heavenly bodies, the order of the seasons, the points of the 
compass, the division of the sky, the lour elements — fire, earth, 
air and water, the celestial spaces, the nature powers, and possi- 
bly a calendar system. These symbols are rude and present the 
subject in a primitive stage, but they are constantly suggesting 
thoughts nf the customs of the more advanced races and remind 
us of the marvelous things contained in eastern mythology. We 
have already shown that they contain the same symbols which 
are embodied in the various calendar wheels and sacrificial stones 
of Mexico, as well as those which are found upon the inscribed 
tablets of the ancient cities of Central America, for the crosses, 
circles, serpents, figures of the tree, birds, masks, human figures, 
which are lound rudely drawn upon the disks and gorgets and 
tablets, apparently have the same significance as those contained 
in the more advanced works of art, and represent the same 
general system. The temptation is to read into these lines, the 
symbols which developed with 
such great variety in the east, 
and to imagine that the serpent 
whose folds surrounded the 
earth and formed the ocean 
was symbolized in the serpent 
gorget ; that the Nile key 
or Kgyptun tau was symbol- 
ized in the spider gorget; the 
tnskelis or revolving wheel, 
which symbolized the revolu- 
tion of the sky, and the fire 
generator or suastika, which 
is also an oriental symbol, 
were contained in other gor- 
n„. ..-* n ~.,i ... (V «*■.-.,,. RcU v\"c can say, at least. 

that there is such a correspondence between thee symbols and 
the oriental myths as to le.nl us to trace out a "map of the heavens" 
in these Hide disks and gorgets, for we recognize in I lie**- figures 
of serpents and spiders analogies to the dragons, beetles, ami 
tortoises winch .ire seen in the maps of the heavens elsewhere, 
while the unangemen! of the circles, crescents and crosses are 
almost identical, and suggest the simr myths 

An asm hi- mill ,il significance may be given In the winged and 
ma-keil .real ires which are engraved up--n the . opper plates 
These iesemb>. in wime te-jn-it-, the winged lignum common 
aniiing the ClirJilwvi'.ers and 1'ueMos of the we-t. and at the 
sain-- tune t- nun! u- ol the winged cre.i!i:re> which were found 
bv M Italic: ■ ugravel upon the - :'.\'\:n- •'. si.ne-.i I Itut.maU 
There *.» thr sun.' . -mi>Kn.i!h.n ..f birds" c!.i«, and beak-, with 
human l»..d-. ,ind limb- .mt I ":g. 51. [he symbol ..["the sun 
being .1- p:.iiii :ip 'ii the -liei; forget- a-, upon the sculptured 




8AB.KANISM OR SKY WORSHIP IS AMERICA. JST 

stones, though the flames are absent. It is probable that these 
represented the sky divinities, the wings filled with arches sym- 
bolizing the spaces above and the clouds, the birds' beaks and 
claws symbolizing the bird of the sky, the human form perhaps 
symbolizing the personal divinities. The same may be said of 
the dancing figures, for there arc zigzag lines upon some of the 
laces, and there are masks in their hands, and there arc circles 
surrounding them, showing that the lightning and the operations 
of the sky were symbolized by them, for masks are the signs of 
transformation ; the dancers are transformed into birds and ani- 
mals, and again into men and warriors, and yet they personate 
the divinities as well as the nature powers. 

The same interpretation may be given to the human figures, 
whose limbs are so strangely contorted and end in birds' claws, 
bodies divided into links and circles, head in the shape of a 
corona, ears formed by perforated loops, arms curiously doubled 
and jointed, numerous per- 
forations at the joints (see 
Fig. 5). the space in the shell 
being filled with loops and 
other figures. These symbol- 
ize the sky divinities. The 
presence of shell masks with 
the tattooed human face upon 
them in the mounds conveys 
the idea that there was an as- 
sociation of the burial of the 
dead with the system of sky 
and sun worship, for the cus- 
tom prevailed among the 
Aleuts to put a mask over the 
lace of a dead person when it 
was laid away, as it was sup- 



posed to be going on a journey 

to the land of the spirits. A **•*•- 




interpretation has been given to the faces with open 
mouths. These faces are attended with sun symbols, sun circles, 
birds' heads, symbols of the cardinal points, suggesting that the 
soul had departed to the celestial spaces. The fact that shells and 
disks <>n which were inscribed symbols of the sonl were deposited 
with the body at the time of burial shows that there was a con- 
nection between the native astrology and the future state. The 
soul which was so surrounded by the nature powers and the 
solar universe was to be introduced to the celestial spaces after 
death. Hence the symbol must be placed near the body, that 
the soul might take these as the doors or the patterns of the 
supernatural realm. This was the underlying thought with the 
s.icrcd mysteries and the secret societies 



iJi THK AMERICAS AKTigi'AKIAX. 

2. It maybe said also of the mounds themselves, especially those 
upon the Ohio River, that they contain the many astrological 
symbols, singly and in combination, the same as the relics do. 
We find in them circles, crescents, squares, concentric circles, 
crosses, horse-shoes, platforms, altars, avenues, so related to one 
another and to the relics which arc contained in them as to con- 
vince us that they were designed to be symbols €if sky worship. 
The uniformity uf the figures and of the areas contained in the 
sacred enclosures, as well as of the measurements of the walls 
surrounding then", has been noticed by all the surveyors, for 
the Circles are perfect circles and the squares are perfect squares. 
It has not been held that this perfection of the figures was 
anything more than accidental, hut the correspondence between 
the earth-works and the relics convinces us that these were 



„^^., - » 




all diic.ledl.y -yml.oh...; g. 
and the [.'..illoiiii-. within tin 
account the pmiiients .ind a 
CoiiMruele-l in the sh.i|-e 



oumN had spiral pith-. 
l-, B .n. Ih, earth wori. 
and burial places werec- 



phy; tor the -acrd enclosures 
re uni'ii-.i'ed. am! that on this 
i out. nmd in the mound* were 

. and en-%1 rnt ., an! tin* corneal 
.ili.. nl tin in. See 



Kirn. ila. .1.1. h. 

.iiirouii.hng th.ii ullage-, sacrificial 
-tr i.t.<l .ifici the ji.i'ii'rii- which seem 
In represent the in tp ol the -kv.on a iar^e s, .,;,-. and everything 
about them was put mid- i I In- protection ol the sun divinity. 
In fa. t. w. r-iogn:/- the .-;!■ ■■ -, cr ■ and cre-ccnt-. and ser- 
pents ,tti<! birds r- pr.-si-iitid l.y th- eartii- works and in the relics 
as ih. d.ffc;. nt [>atts , f ..n.- '. u.-al .v-ti-m. ot uhi. h the earth- 
woik- were the symbol, 

; \V. .lie I- .! '■; III.--.- -•. i:i!..-'- ! ■■ draw th- icmparison lietwcen 
[lie ..nth w ;i - h< i.- and t! ■ •tar.>::n_: s;. „, , .,inl ui-.nunient* .-f 
(ire.it 1*:;!. on. l.-i lln-n- .tie n:.i-y in.i)'.;es t.- :w em them, though 



SAB.KASISM OB SKY WORSHIP IS AMERICA. 



229 



the identity of the symbols is difficult to prove. Others have 
noticed the symbolism contained in these different works. Mr. 
W. F. Maurice has described the circles at Stonchengc and 
Avebury. See Fig. 9. Speaking of Stonchenge, he says: The 
number of stones in the outer circle is thirty, and of the inner 
circle is twelve, and the single stone, or obelisk, in the center, 
I le -ays that the remarkable numbers one hundred, sixty, thirty, 
twelve, constantly occurring, unavoidably bring to our recollec- 
tion great jieriods of astronomy, the sothic cycle, century, the 
months, thirty days, twelve signs of the zodiac; five is the multi- 
ple of must of these numbers. Me compares Stonchengc to the 
circle .it Hi sea wen, a circular temple, consisting of nineteen stones, 
distant from each other twelve feet, having one in the center 




higher than the rest. Nineteen is a sacred number. He says: 
"All circular monuments, especially those consisting of columns 
or standing stones, were meant as representatives of the sun, or 
the revolution of the sun in its orbit. The temple was uncovered, 
resembling the temples of the ancient Persians. He compares 
Stone henge to the circular temple at Roll rich, which is the .same 
size, and which lie calls the Druids' wheel or circle. The Druids, 
not less than the llrahroins, adored the sun in a circular dance. 
The (I. ink imitated the sun by turning the body around while 
engaged in their devotions. The Ph<i;nicians made their chil- 
dren pass through the fire and worship the sun as a divinity. In 
Scandinavia the gods were worshiped partly in the open air and 
in groves, or in places encompassed by a circle of big stones. 
The Druid- celebrated their solemnities at the solstices. It is 
said that they used the stones which cover their dolmens as their 
altars, and sacrificed human victims upjn these. It is noticeable 
that the modern arch.x'ologists are tracing out a remarkable 
system of solstitial orientation in the works at Stonchengc, show- 
ing that the adytum or altar was open in a line with the monolith 



V 


/ / 




- - 


7 ' 

/ , 




' y 




' / /' 


j.i 



?"-:' - : - '■;■'.' -7.7 1 



J:* 



9m 



V 



V -.*. 



H 



KAB.SAMSM OR SKY WORSHIP IN AMERICA. tt3 

worship will account for all these customs and ceremonies. We 
have no record that there were secret societies and sacred mys- 
teries among these tribes, but a natural inference is that all of 
these ceremonies were under the direction of such a society. 
There is no doubt that there was an esoteric significance to all 
these customs and that they embodied the myths and traditions 
which had regard to the sky divinities, myths which resemble 
those held by the Cherolcecs. 

II. We next turn to the ancient Mound-builders. We have 
already referred to different religious systems which prevailed 
among them.* We have shown that animal worship or totemism 
prevailed in one district; fire worship in another; the water cult 
in another; the moon cult in another, and the solar cult in still 
another. The thought now before us is that sky worship was 
the predominant religion of the Mound-builders and these local 
cults were the component 
parts of the more general 
system. I. As evidence of 
this we would refer to the 
relics which have been dis- 
covered in the mounds.es- 
pecially those situated in 
the Ohio Valley and the 
Gulf Slates, a region which 
was occupied by (lie sun 
worshipers. Among these 
relics we notice many shell 
gorgets in which there arc 
circles, and in the circles, 
discs and dots and cres- 
cents, the arrangement of *+*<^*— ****#** ***** 
the figures on the concave shell gorgets suggesting the thought 
that there was an attempt to make them represent a map of the 
sky with the sun, moon and stars filling the four celestial spaces. 
See Fig. 3. There are coiled serpents with the bodies divided 
into four parts by concentric circles, other concentric circles 
forming the eye. the concave filled with various arches (see 
Fig. 4) suggesting that there was a hidden astrology contained 
in them. There are also spider gorgets which have circles and 
crosses and bars upon the back, zigzag lines between the mandi- 
bles, all of them symbols ol the nature powers, the number four 
being preserved . and the whole arrangement making them sug- 
gestive of a chart. The same may be said of the bird gorgets, 
though in these the spaces are rectangles rather than circles. They 
arc all suggestive of a symbolical geography which had to do 
with the sky as well as the earth. 

Our supposition is that they represent the motion of the 




23'J THK AMKRKWX ANTIgLAKIAN. 

one hundred and fifteen feet, surrounded by a ditch and embank- 
ment, with two entrances, one to the southeast and one to the 
northwest. Within the oval are the remains (if a "cove" formed 
of standing stones, like those at Avebury and Stone Hengc. 
The avenue which lead* toward (iibb Hill was once sup|x>scd to 
give the form «»f a serpent to the monument, but the entrance 
resembles that at the Ken net avenue at Avebury, and is in the 
same direction. The works at Stanton Drew consist of three 
separate circles, arranged in line with a "cove" or trilith like 
th«»sc at Avebury and Arbor Lowe, arranged in such a way that 
a line in the direction ot the northeast would pass through the 
center of the great circle. Here there is also a great single 
stone like the "friar's heel" at Stone Henge. The conclusion 
which Mr. Lewis draws from the study of all these works is that 
the stone circles, which are more numerous and larger in Ilritain 
than in any other part of Kurope, were devoted to the worship 
of the sun and "perhaps of the stars." They were erected on a 
plan anil were placed so that the circle would have a position 
with regard to some massive stone, or some prominent hill, or 
group «'f three hills, th.it the sun would shine over these into 
the circle and strike upon the altar inside ot tie "cove" at the 
time of it* lining .it the summer solstice. Now whether these 
circle^ can be regarded as f.irmshing any "map of the sky," or 
any symbolical geography, the resemblance between them and 
the circles, horse-slini'H, »r isscs and other symbols contained in 
the earth -works «>t < >hio is certain! v verv striking. 

III. Skv worship existed among the I'm-hlos and l/iill-dwell- 
ers and their defendants the Xunis and M'tpns. There was 
associated with n a s\s»em ol orient.i'ion and an expensive cal- 
endar s\ stern, al*n set ret societies and rnan\ s.ured ceremonies 
and a s\m!»niu..I gi'ogr.iphy which is very surprising. It is 
verv interesting to t«ilitm out the system .is it existed here. 
Various aulliois h.iv been engaged in the s'udv o| it and thev 
have brought our rnanv interesting fai •>. Among these may 
Ih* mentioned Mr. Frank Curbing, Mr. James Ste\en*on, Mrs*. 
Maliliia L". >re\ensnn t Mr. W.d'.er I'Ywkes and I >r Washing- 
ton Ma'thew s. 

Mr. I'"rank l/ushing h.is g:\en us rnanv tacts in reJi-rence to 
this He sa\ s, the t hut pi<ml in the h>'i/ <i> Was the east and 
all hi her pirn's were arranged w:'h leVreiw e to this. The 
p»r.n's \\«-ir arranged ielwaroiv and i»wr.:rti around "he hori- 
/ >n on 'he tingeis, trie r.i»' the ! ami ni i:,i\ , riie wr*', trie land 
nl n:gh', the rio*::. t the limne of the rnis'er o! g-d*. The Zen- 
ith .irui !hr naitir Were alsn w.-rni- peopled hy grea' il«-ds; the 
middle was .• i -^ ■ » a wurid : '- :!s»-i\ • Mis making vvi-n divisions 
ot :iiesk\ .m<i '.he rar'h. The middle w as .miijvi^s fiy animals 
and mm. Tfa* g-»d* ol the srvrra. region* were represented 
bv the elders o! i ■ in*, the elder s o| 'h«' rmri.'i Jning in special 



fiAB.KAMSM OR SKY WORSHIP IN AMERICA. 



331 



favor with the gods, and so the first in rank. Next to these 
were the elders ot the west. The divinities or fetiches ol the dif- 
ferent clans had their rank according to the points oi the com- 
pa.", those ol the north being first. 

The order of all the dances must accord with this arrange- 
ment. Each region must be represented by appropriate lead- 
ers, clan leaders. The north, west, south, east, upper and lower, 
each region having a house for the gods. The dances were 
celebrated at the different seasons and by ihe different clans, 
their order being fixed by the precedence which the gods of the 
region above had over each other, the rank of the gods and the 
order ol the dances following the cardinal points from right to 




left. The Zunis also had kivas which were consecrated to these 
gods. In each ot the cities or pueblos in the Gila valleys were 
(emple kivas in which the chambers were arranged in a circuit, 
the doorways leading around Irom the east to the center, the 
northern and southern chambers being twice as large as the 
others tu represent the upper and lower regions. 

These temple kivas were strongholds, storehouses and homes 
of the priest rulers of each of the pueblos, as well as a place ol 
sacred assembly, but embodied in themselves the six houses of 
the gods with the center making seven. The temple of Vira- 
rocki, Peru, was built on the same plan and probably owed its 
origin to the sequence ol the cardinal points, similar to that ot 
the Zunis. The ceremonial diagram in the prayer meal of the 
seven ancient spaces shows a four-fold circuit ol entrance. Seven 
chambers in the diagram. The first entrance is at the north 



234 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



and the last at the seventh or middle. The consecration of the 
field of the Zunis, the corn hills have a similar distribution, the 
yellow corn at the north, blue corn for the west, red corn for 
the south, white for the east, speckled for the zenith, black tor 
the nadir and variegated for the middle. This location accord- 
ing to the cardinal points, of corn hills, kivas, sacred chambers 
and the sacred spaces was very ancient and prevailed among 
the Zunis more sensibly than any other tribe. The seven cities 




of CihoLi art- MippiNrri in h.tvt- I 
■in, h.r in tl 



m « to the same 

arrangement, l«r in tlie>e tin- totem* «.l the rsnrth itm-.l in .1 vil- 
lage by thtmnelves, those of the hi-M m another, nt tin- south 

;™ .„...'!...- .„,i ■ .j l( . ,. ; „[,. nit ijpp,-r ,in.| Inner, wh .*: those 

it her town .ip.irt In mi a I -hi- rest. 

nr M-pl« ;is in mi« : erti Zunn, it sell 

mi.iilv ruling .ill IK- rest. Vet ruling 

ill tlu- rest 



of the middle dwell 
iisrlt subdivided into v 

als«i the inrulhiMil •■■■ 

through proto-pncMly reprvei 
in due order nt precedence; onlv, here in 'In- midmost place, 
these were under the Sun or Kither-I'mtn-pin rt, .-n.l the Seed 
or Mother-l'rotn-nriesu—s in .it le.ts'- all re'gwus and off 
moninl oinierns. 
The idols ol the Zunis exhibit the same symbolism as do the 



SABjEANISM OR 8KY WORSHIP IN AMERICA. 236 

sacred ceremonies. In these we see the arches of the sky, the 
turrets of the clouds, the feathers of the wind, the Icolors, the 
signs of the different quarters of the sky, the crosses of the car- 
dinal points, the pictures of the celestial houses, the male and 
female divinities who presided over the houses and were the 
creators and ancestors of the people, each line and color of each 
idol having a hidden significance. See Fig. xx. 

In reference to orientation, the Tusayan Indians of Arizona 
place their sacred or world divisions on an angle ol from torty- 
tive to fifty degrees west ol north, and construct their kivas 
accordingly, resembling the well-known placement of the Baby- 
lonian and Assyrian temples, obliquely to the cardinal points, the 
angles instead of the sides facing north, west, south and east. 
The arbitrary placing of the world quarters was carried further 
by the ancient Was, as shown bv the orientation of Cuzco than 
by any other people, except the Chinese. The sun was the all- 
important factor in the universe, the maker of day and the 
renevver of light. 

The seven ancient spaces were sometimes symbolized in the 
ceremonial diagrams, which were made on the floor with prayer 
meal, six chambers or houses being arranged around a central 
one. What is most singular, the ground plan of the ruins of 
Casa (Jrande shows a similar arrangement around a central room. 
This conveys the idea that there may have been a knowledge 
o! the solstitial sun and an arrangement of the chambers or 
rooms in the villages so as to catch the rays of the rising sun. 

It is the opinion of Mr. Stephens and Walter Fewkes that the 
four cardinal points of the Moquis are determined by the sum- 
mer and winter solstices. The first point toward the north is 
determined by the notch on the horizon from which the sun sets 
at the summer solstice, the second west by its setting in the 
winter, the third by its rising in winter, and the fourth by its 
rising in the summer. This brings the arrangement into har- 
nv ny with the one with which Mr. Cu5hing has described, 
though it gives a diflerent explanation. 

The following "creation" myth has been given by Mrs. Steven- 
son: "When the people first came to this world they passed 
through tour worlds, all in the interior, the passageway from 
darkness to light being through a large reed. They were pre- 
ceded by two local divinities who dwelt upon the mountains, the 
one a hideous looking creature, the other a being with snow 
white hair, probably the personifications of the rain and snow, 
or the black cloud and white cloud. One ot these descended 
the mountain and drew his foot through the sands. Immedi- 
ately a river flowed and a lake formed, and in the depths of 
the lake a group of white houses, constituting a village. There 
was a belief that the spirits ot the dead went to the beautiful 
village, and that there was a passageway through the moun- 
tains to the depths of the lake with four chambers, where the 



236 TI1K AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

priests of the divinities rest in their journey to the sacred waters. 
This myth is dramatized in a peculiar way in the kivas at the 
initiation ot the children. 

The superstition is that no male child can after death enter 
the spirit lake or have access to the sacred village in its depths 
unless he receives the sacred breath ot the spiritual divinities, 
the Sooiike. There are accordingly persons appointed who 
are to appear at the ceremony of initiation ot the children and 
represent the di fie rent parts of the sky. The first ceremony 
takes place in the open air by day. The priest ot the sun enters 
the sacred plaza, draws the sacred square with the sacred meal, 
a yellow line in the east, a blue line in the west, a red line in 
the south. Along these lines the god- fathers pass, each one 
holding the god-child on his back. As he passes the line the 
••Sootike" strikes the child with a large bunch ot Spanish bay- 
onets with such force at limes as to draw tears to the eves. 
These Sootike are }*ersons appointed who are endowed with 
the breath and represent the diflerent parts of the sky. The 
next cei emonv takes pi. ice at night. In this the figure of a plumed 
serpent is introduced as a symbol of the rain god and carried 
bv messengers of the sky divinities. They wear masks; those 
lor the north, yellow; those for the west, blue; those for the 
south, red; those for the east, white; those for the heavens, all 
colors; those for the earth, black. These come to the village 
alter Mindown. Thev carrv a serpent made <»t hide, ahnut 
twelve feet long and eighteen iru hes through, the alnlomcn 
painted while, the back black with white stars. Thev pass 
through the town, visit each kiva and put the head o! the ser- 
pent through the hatihway. This signifies the rain cloud pass- 
ing over the mountains ami occasionally descending into the 
valleys, bringing water and rain to the villages. This cere- 
mony was a sacred drama wlmh represents the dillei en*, objects 
ot nature, and takes plat e in the s.ured kivas inn e in toi.r years. 
An old priest stands and blows through tfie body ot the serpent 
with a peculiar innsr tesemhSmg that ot a sea monster. The 
arrangement wi'hm the kiva is peculiar. The lather nl the sun 
sits upon a throne at the west end ot the room. Tin* high 
priest .incl pnes'es*. nn either side ot the tnronc. The war gcxl 
sits .it the b*!t ol the tire altar and feeds the sacred tlame*. The 
god-parents si: up-»fi a stone ledge, which represents 'he third 
stage ot the creat phi, each with .1 boy by his stde on the ledge. 
Inside cf tie kiv.i .ire uxhiip'.s ot s.mii, on which are wands ol 
feathers. MesM-ngeis <.f the n« ir th, eas!, south and west lake 
these lea'hers, .iru: go to e.u h i hiid and blow the s.ured breath 
over the piume* into the n;«»uth ot »he 1 h:ld. After this the 
leathered serpen! appear*. The high pries! ol the bow, of the 
sk\, 'he priestess ot the earth, ascend to the hatchway, holding 
a large earthen Niw! to 1 .i:» h the water poured from the mouth 
ol trie serpen:, K-i-io-o-owit-si. Kach god-lather carries the 



EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES. 287 

holy water to the boys to drink, and makes a gift of the howl 
to the boy. After this the priests catch the seed which is sent 
from the abdomen of the serpent, in their blankets, and distrib- 
ute the seeds to all present. In the morning the bovs are taken 
trom their homes to a dis.ance Irom the village where they plant 
prayer plumes and make prayers to the sky divinities, the child 
repealing the prayers after the god-father. Here, then, we have 
the sky worship, as among the eastern tribes, and which has 
the same elements, a belief in the future, a dependence upon 
the powers of nature, the presence of divinities, the necessity of 
initiation into sacred rites in order to take the benefits of the 
nature powers. The imagery is all drawn from the mountains, 
lakes and rivers and the personification of the rain clouds and 
the snow. 



EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES. 

By William Copi.ky Winslow, Ph. D., Sc. D. 

Thk Trmplk of Qukkn Hatasu continues to be a point of 
absorbing interest in archaeological exploration. Dr. Naville's 
work receives the unqualified encomiums of such critics as 
Professor MahafYy in the Nineteenth Century, the Mav number, 
for its highly scientific character. As a hieroglyphic scholar 
he is unsurpassed, and is now taking rank with the best practi- 
cal excavators of the day. The Egypt Exploration Fund is 
doing work inferior to nothing in which it has been engaged; 
and which, in connection with its archaeological survey, merits 
ample support froi.. the public. The London Times observes 
of the Queen Hatasu site: "If the present undertaking can be 
carried through, the Egypt Exploration Fund will have the 
credit of promoting a unique monument to the select first rank 
of the spectacles of Egypt, and its publications of the reliefs 
and paintings, as well as all t' e minor treasures found, and to 
he found, will be more complete and not less artistic than the 
magnificent volumes which French munificence has produced." 

Dr. Hogarth writes of the hypostyle hall, now cleared of its 
rubbish heaps, that it is one of the best preserved remains of 
antiquity in Egypt. The star-spangled ceiling rests on twelve 
sixteen-sided columns, over fifteen feet high; right and left are 
brightly-painted funerary niches, and the main walls show scenes 
still brilliant in coloring. South of this hypostyle is a portico 
corresponding in everything but excellence of workmanship to 
the famous Punt portico on the south side of the central cause- 
way. It is very much ruined; the square pillars are only com- 
plete at the broken end, and very few of tne architrave blocks 
or rooting slates are in position. The number of these fallen 



238 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

masses of stone proved a great impediment to us, and we have 
been able this season only to clear the space between the west- 
ern rank ot pillars and the wall. By so doing we have laid bare a 
very interesting series of representations, concerning the pre- 
liminaries and circumstances of the birth of the queen, tier 
mother, Ahmes, appears, conducted by several divinities to the 
presence of Amen, and the god appears to her in the guise of 
her husband, Thothmes I., as in those well-known scenes in the 
Luxor Temple, relating to the birth of Amenhotep III. Much 
restoration has been done on this wall by Rameses II.; but the 
fine portraits of Ahmes herself have escaped his hand, and 
remain admirable examples of XVIIIth Dynasty art, both in 
moulding and coloring. The inscriptions, though deface i, are 
fairly legible. Among the debris, which has lain since an early 
period on the court bounded by this portico, the hypostyle and 
the colonnade, we have found most of our small objects ol art 
in stone, ware, or paste. Not much statuary has been discovered ; 
the best piece is the lower half of a kneeling btatue of Senmut, 
the architect of the temple; and a very fine portrait head in 
sycamore wood, on a part of a mummy case, is worthy ot 
special mention. Amulets, figurines, rings and scarabs, inscribed 
and uninscribed, have been discovered in considerable numbers; 
and in addition to countless separate beads, some fine necklaces 
of blue ware, still strung, with pendants attached, were found 
in the lowest layer of this deposit. Papyrus has been unearthed 
only in innumerable small fragments; the largest pieces have 
formed part ot copies of the Book ot the Dead. 

The initial volume of this undertaking, with its plates of the 
Altar Chamber, the Hall ot Offerings and the Chapel of Thoth- 
mes III., will be a brilliant foretaste of what is to follow. Dr. 
Hogarth considers that when the excavation is complete results 
ot value bearing on Egyptian art will be attained. 

The most dazzling discovery ever made in the vallev of the 
Nile is that ot M. de Morgan at Dashour, and perhaps it is the 
happiest hit ever vouchsafed an archaeologist in search ol treas- 
ure. The treasures ot jewelry and gems in this Aladdin's cave 
ot the l-surtcsens ot the Xlllh Dynasty are reckoned at six 
humlred thousand dollars in value. Now comes the question it 
the Louvre is to profit by this mine ot museum- wealth; for John 
Hull, on occupying Kgvpt, consigned all matters arilueological 
to Frern h control. ( )t course, (ii/eh will have the pick; but 
when ro\;il ;jrms by the pint and pound turn up en muse there 
is enough and to MMre, liberally. Historic ally, this magnificent 
outpour i«» • I comparatively little- value. Yet have the news- 
paper*, naturally enough, been Mirch ir ged with so sensational 
a (!:M»iVcr\. And w- cannot hianie '.he m.ij »ntv ot Nile tourists 
iJ the magnet .it the <i;/eh Museum N henceforth the I'surtesen 
showi.iM'. The ir\ against fire must now include burglary. 



EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES. 2» 

Let the new museum, (or which five hundred thousand dollars 
are appropriated, be secure both ways. 

As if fecund Egypt was not intended to have any respite 
archa»ologically, Dr. retrie has exhumed at Koto, the site of the 
ancient Coptos, three unique and crude statues of the god 
Khem, which he more than surmises are relics of a period con- 
temporaneous with the stone age in Europe. They are shat- 
tered; have heads with ears and beards, but without a face, 
which was supplied by a mask; their arms are puny and dis- 
proportion^, and the legs form a single piece* with a groove to 
designate the division oetween them. The sawfish and sea 
shells engraved on oneol the fragments indicate that the people 
at Koto came into Egypt from the Red Sea, particularly as it is 
the Nile end of the great caravan route. 

But Egypt, and now especially Great Britain, has another 
agitation. It is the proposed damming ol the Nile and making 
an immense tract of Nubia into a reservoir, so that Egypt may 
not be watered loo much at once, and too little (if at all) at 
another time. Aside from the destruction of monuments and 
sentimental considerations, is a scientific reason to my mind 
why vast forethought is needed. *• Egypt is the gift of the Nile," 
because of its alluvial deposits. If the waters at the overflow 
be dammed up for a distance of a hundred miles, and be dis- 
charged in small quantities through sluices, will the precious 
sediment accompany the water? Will not the alluvium so set- 
tle in the vast modern "Lake Moeris" that, even with machin- 
ery to stir up the "grounds," comparatively little of the sedi- 
ment will reach Lower Egypt, and, at best, be poorly dis- 
tributed? To dam up so inconceivably vast a body of water 
means risk, as the breaking of any dam is not an impossibility. 
The humanitarian side of the question is not to be sneered at. 
Some say that the lands on both sides of the Nile for 150 miles 
above Philae will be submerged. The Nubians' home is there 
— where will he go? Doubtless a barrage is sure to come, but 
wo* to that man who thoughtlessly or carelessly selects the site 
and builds thereon. 

The volume "Annas," just issued by the Fund, reflects credit 
upon the society, particularly in its fine plates to illustrate the 
site of the biblical Hanes (Isaiah 30: 4) and the Heracleopolis 
ol the (j reeks. It is not generally known that the palm-leaf 
column in Boston, and the one at the University of Pennsylvania 
are irom this site. The Atlas of Ancient Egypt, now received, 
fully justifies my expectations (see The Antiquarian for May, 
p. x6»y), and I commend it to all readers of these notes. 

The appointment of a secretary of the Fund, with an office, 
for the l/nited States has long been a necessity. I fetl assured 
that Miss Mary H. Comyns is the right person in the right 



240 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

place. Every subscriber of this magazine will find a welcome 
at the oTice in Boston, and he will see interesting pub.ications 
which may ensnare him to ownership in one of them. As our 
London office (37 Great Russell street) is opposite the British 
Museum, so our Boston office (15 Rlagden street), adjoining the 
new Public Library, is "just across the way" from our museum. 
Si mi I ia Sifnthbtts. 



EXPLORATIONS ON THE NORTHWEST COAST, 

Prot. George Davidson, of the United States coast and geo- 
detic survey, has recently given an address in Tacoma, Wash- 
ington, upon the early discoveries and explorations on the north- 
west coast of America. After thirty-five years' service upon 
the coast he commenced to place upon record some of the re- 
sults of his personal examinations. He traced the earliest efforts 
of Ulloa, who reached a position about forty miles north of Cer- 
ros Island in 1539. Then in i542-'43 Cabrillo and Ferello, in 
two vessels, struggled to depict the coast much farther north. 
Their highest land fall was hort Foss in 3S degrees 18 minutes, 
although they got as high as 42 degrees, but were then far out 
at sea. In 1579 Francis Drake, whom the professor designated 
as the captain-general ot freebooters, made his landfall about 
Cape Oxford and anchored in Chetko cove about 42 degrees 
and X minutes, whence he sailed to Francis Drake's bav in lati- 
tude 3S. There is a manuscript chart of Dudley's in the royal 
museum of Munich which is evidently founded on Drake's pant* 
tive and probably on his charts. 

In 1 fi02 \\ Vizcaino made thirty-two "plans" of the coast 
from Cape San Lucas to about latliliule 42 and the resulting 
general chart exhibiis every headland, island and bay of impor- 
tance except San Francisco. I lis charts were only rediscovered 
in 1802. Then discovery rested 107 years to the land expedi- 
tion of Portula, who discovered the Hay of San Francisco. 

Particular stress was laid upon the capital work of Cook and 
Vancouver; and in a lew sentences the prolessor connected 
Vancouver with the boundary question l)etwccn Briti»h Colum- 
bia and Alaska; and then the chronometer longitude connection 
between Silk a and Tacoma. 

Tacoma is now lx*ing connected by telegraph longitude 
with the coast survev longitude stations and thereby by various 
steps directly with (Jreenwich, which is the prime meridian ol 
most ot the maritime nations. This longitude work is what 
Prof. Davidson and his colleague, C. H. Sinclair, are now 
doing.- Tai'otna Ledger. 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. 241 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. 

By Theodore F. Wright. U. S. Secretary. 

On the fourteenth of May Mr. Bliss began work under the 
new firman permitting two years of work at Jerusalem, and our 
subscribers look forward eagerly for the beginning of a report 
in the July issue ot the Quarterly Statement. It is a critical 
period in the work. So long as the government withheld its 
sanction, the information obtained through such work as was 
done by the monks in uncovering Bethesda has served to satisfy 
the public demand for light upon the historic past. The good 
Schick and the rest have sent valuable accounts of isolated dis- 
coveries made here and there in various unofficial ways. Thus 
tor years the accumulation of information was gradual and 
informal. 

The permit to dig at Lachish changed this and turned all 
eyes to the practical test of a tell examined bv the Fund for the 
first time. It was an anxious season, but the first announce- 
ments of Mr. Petrie's discoveries showed that expectations 
would be realized. The further excavations conducted by Mr. 
Bliss set all doubts at rest, and any proposition by the Fund to 
open other tells, it permitted by the government, would have 
been received with satisfaction. 

Instead, however, of being told that some other Tell would 
be opened, we were startled with the news that a most gener- 
ous permit had been given to work at Jerusalem itself, at th 
very spot deemed most important to the verification ot Bibl 
history. What will be the result? Of course no one can tell e 
and we can wait for the information as it is given out; but we» 
can see beforehand that the future of the Fund hangs on tne 
i*sue of this undertaking. If much be brought to light, tne 
work will go on here and there for many years with govern- 
mental sanction ;«nd the aid ot Bible lovers everywhere; but, if 
no results be obtained now, a deep disappointment will settle 
down like an extinguisher upon our present zealous interest. 

What i hen are the chances? I do not hesitate to say that 
thev are wholly favorable. The modern wall of Jerusalem runs 
.un»^ the hills ot Zion. The older wall ran round its brow. 
Weak in a military estimate, the present wall has left outside of 
the u:v the very ground to be excavated. Had the wall made 
the cinh? of the hill, buildings would now cover the ground, 
but, ,b it is, we have a clear course for trenching from the hill 
Zton across the valley of the Tyropoeon to the hill Ophel and 
so .southward into the valley of Hinnom. Not only do we ex- 



242 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

pect to uncover the fortress Millo built by David, but also to 
see the foundations of Solomon's palace and the tombs of the 
Kings. Moreover the valley is tilled one hundred feet with the 
debris of the past and much will be found in this vast accumu- 
lation. Instead of feeling anv anxiety then as to the outcome, 
we are eager for the test, believing that the results will be such 
as to confirm the Fund in public confidence for a long time. 

Certain books published by the Fund are often inquired lor. 
I have therefore obtained a supply and will forward, postpaid, 
the following on receipt ot annexed price: 

Mound of Many Cities, Bliss, $1.25; Recovery of Jerusalem, 
Nilson& Warren, $1.25; Tent Work in Palestine, Conder, $l.<>o; 
Syrian Stone Love, Conder, $1.50; Heth and Moab, Conder, 
$ 1 .50 ; Mount Seir, 1 1 ull, $ 1 .50 ; Geology of Palestine, H ull, $4.50; 
History of Jerusalem, Besant & Palmer, $1.90; Bible and Mod- 
ern Discoveries, Harper, $1.75; Tell Amarna Tablets, Conder, 
$1.25; City and Land, Wilson and others, 90 cents; Names 
and Places, Armstrong, $1.25; Palestine Under Moslems, 
LeStrange, $3.50; Judas Maccabaeus, Conder, $1.25; Index to 
Quarterly Statements, 50 cents; Catalogue of Photographs, 15 
cents; Photographs of Herod's Inscription, 15 cents; Photo- 
graphs of Siloam Inscription, 15 cents; Photographs of Moabite 
Stone, 15 cents; Photographs ot Jar 80 feet buried, 15 cents; Casts 
of Lachish Tablet, two sides, 75 cents; Casts ol Lachish Tablet, 
one side, 40 cents; Casts ot Samaritan Weight, 70 cents; Casts ot 
Seal of Haggai,55 cents; Casts ot Inscribed Beed, 30 cents; Pho- 
tographs ol Contour Map, large, $1.25; Photographs ot Contour 
Man, small, 25 cents. The contour map is now to be had ot Mr. E. 
K. Howell, tn 2 Seventeenth St., X. W, Washington, I). C., 
lor $55. It is perlectly finished, colored, Iramed, boxed tor 
shipment, and warranted lor safe delivery. The price is less 
than in London, but the work is equal. 

For the encouragcmen' ol others I subjoin a list of subscrip- 
tions so far received in 1S94: 

TWKNTY-KIVK DOLLARS. 

Miss Louise Kennedy, Concord, Mass. 

Tkn Dollars. 

Scranton Public Lihrarv, Rev. J. T. Barber, Rev. J. M. P. 
Oils, L. L. I)., E. B. Sturges, Esq. 

Kivk Dollars. 

Mrs. A. L. Hopkins, Miss R. S. Lowcrv, W. A. 
Stewart, Mrs. C. E. Van Corllandt, W. H. Baldwin, 
Mis?» M. A. Sharpe, Mis* E. E. Dana, Daniel Holmes, 
Em} , Mi*s L. H. Barrow, Mrs. Henrv Farnam, E. W. Clark, 
T. F. Wright, Mrs. A. T. McCiintock, Rev. James Carter, 
Mi*s L. Freeman Clarke, Win. Niles, Esq., \Vm. Gaurneil, 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. 248 

George T. Little, Col. F. Fairbanks, Dr.T. C. Billheimer, Miss 

F. W. Black well, A. Dempster; anonymous, Welleslev College, 
Prof. J. II. Thayer, D. D., George Vaux, S. Wilson Fisher, D. 
L. Webster, C. W. Shane, H. E. Pierrepont, E. F. Billings, 
Samuel Small, Toronto Y. M. C. A., Edwin Parsons, Rev. J. 
Easter, Ph. D., Rev. B. R. Wilburn, J. W. McNary, G. F. 
Billings, Pres. D. C. Gilman, Rev. John Worcester, R. D. 
Douglas, Miss E. W. Stevenson, H. E. Nitchie, Rev. L. W. 
Kip, Mrs. E. D. Perkins, Rev. James W. Fenn, Charles 
Buncher, H. E. Deals, Mrs. Elisabeth A. Slade, F. G. McKean. 

Thrkk Dollars. 
Mrs. E. II. Pearson. 

Two Dollars and a Half. 

The Rev. A. S. Dobbs, D. D., Mrs. S. B. Cone, 
Prol. W. W. Davis, Miss F. E. Harding, Rev. J. Mor- 
row, D. D., Pro!. J. Strong, D. D., Dr. J. H. Morrison, J. 
H. Perry, J. A. Thompson, Rev. J. Zimmerman, C. S. Carrier, 
Esq., Rev. }. A. Johnston, Rev. A. A. Williams, Rev. F. P. 
Miller, Rev. S. S. Seward, Rev. J. Humberger, Frank Wood, 
Mrs. Frank Wood, Rev. S. C. Bartlett, D. D., Rev. W. W. 
Atterburv, D. D., T. P. Barnefield, Prof. R. W. Rogers, Bos- 
ton Cong. Library, Prof. D. G. Lyon, Rev. E. Horbruck, Dr. 

G. S. Stevens, Prof. W. W Moore, Alexander Strong, W. W. 
White, Mrs. R. B. Scott, Prof. J. W. Beardslce, Prof. F. S. 
Goodrich, H. W. Preston, White Library, Cornell, Rev. W. 
W. Adams, D. D., A. P. Putnam, D. D., Rev. G. F. Williams, 
R. S. F. Dike, D. D., Miss Mary Evans, Rev. W. C. Winslow, 
D. D., Rev. J. L. Ewell, William A. Shaw, Miss Grace T. 
Davis, Rev. J. T. Ladd. 

The April issue ot the Quarterly Statement contained, besides 
other illustrations, six photographs ol the famous sarcophagus 
found at Sidon and believed by many to be Alexander's. 
I have extra copies and can date back subscriptions so as to 

include April. 

42 Quincy Sc, Cambridge, Mass. 



244 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



Correspondence. 



THE CHEROKEE CALENDAR SYSTEM. 
Editor American Antiquarian: 

My reply to your inquiry concerning the Cherokee calendar 
has been delayed by pressing business. Excepting in the reten- 
tion of five seasons, the Chcrokces have entirely Tost their old 
system of measuring time and have now only the regular whitr 
man's way of counting days, weeks and months. For days and 
months, they have names in their own language, and weeks are 
counted by Sundays, /. e. % next week is expressed as "after Sun- 
day," and three weeks as "three Sundays." Seven is a sacred 
number in their mythology and ritual, but has no connection 
with their present calendar system, excepting as borrowed from 
the whites. Their year formerly began in spring. I enclose 
present names of months (which they still call moons) and seasons. 

Months — January, Unalatuni, refers to the wind driving objects 
short distances; February, Gngall; March, AnOyl, refers to 
strawberries (anO); April, Kuwanl, refers to ducks (?) (kawanu); 
May, Unaskoti, refers to making pottery (unti); June, TehAluyl; 
July, Guyegwanf; August, (ialuni, refers to the drying up of 
the streams; September, Dulisti ; ( )ct<>bcr. Dunin.iti ; November, 
Nnntategwa, "large moon"; December, I'nskiyi. 

Seasons — Spring, Gageyi, "near the summer"; Summer, Gagl; 
Early Autumn, Guyu; I,ate Autumn, I'lagahustu, reftrs to the 
falling of the leave*; Winter, Gain. J.\mk> M<m»nk\. 

Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C. 



>«. »■ 



THK MAYA LANGUAGE. 

luiitot Antirii.iH Anti-tiuiiun: 

I am satisfied now that 1 have mule th.it connection between 
the old and new world we have t>ecn m> long hunting for. 

I find thai the M.iv.i l.mguagc is beyond all question a direct 
(•tl«hno! Imiii the Mai. iv. The proof of this is .so lull, so clear 
.inti <o iumplcU' that it will silence ail opposition on the part of 
litiiMii^. In lonstiuc'.hifi the M.iva i> much nearer the Malav 
than air th«* I *• *l\n<-^i in languages there are more th.in twice 
a** in.mv M.tlav words in the Maya thin in all the Polynesian 
dialei !n together. 

This comparison has cer taint v never been made helore, tor 
linguist* couiii not l.ave (overlooked the relation. 

Cvris Thomas. 



THE ZODIAC AND ORIENTATION IN AMERICA. M6 



Editorial. 



THE ZODIAC AND ORIENTATION IN AMERICA. 

The description of sky worship in America introduces the 
inquiry, How much did the American races know about astron- 
omy ? This is not easily answered, yet there are some facts 
which throw light upon the subject, and so we propose to con- 
sider it. First, let us say that a book has recently appeared in 
England called "The Dawn of Astronomy."* This book treats 
mainly of the mythology and early astronomy ol Egypt, but it 
enables us to draw a comparison and is of great importance in 
understanding the subject of astrology in America. It shows 
the different stages through which ancient astronomy passed, 
and reveals the views which were held in the east and the differ- 
ent elements which were brought together by the history of sky 
worship. The author divides the observation of the heavenly 
bodies into three stages — the first for wonder and worship; the 
second for utility, the observation of the seasons, the direction 
of religious feasts and the processes of agriculture ; the third for 
the knowledge of astronomical principles, the first two stages 
being associated with mythology. 

The oldest and most primitive form of nature worship known 
to history was sabaranism. This existed among the Aryans at 
an early date. In it the earth (Prithivi); the sky (Varuna); 
the water (Ap); the fire (Agni); the storm-gods (Maruts), were 
ail personified and worshiped as deities. It is mentioned in the 
Vedas that the sky and the blue ocean are "Varuna 's loins." 
•'Varuna stemmed asunder the wide firmament. He lifted up on 
hi^h the bright and glorious heavens. He stretched out the 
starry sky and the earth." Among the Persians there was a 
m<>rc or less conscious opposition to the gods of nature and a 
striving after a more spiritual deity. This resulted in dualism. 
Still prayers were offered to the dawn, and the contest between 
li^ht ami darkness was personified. The darkness, called Ah i man, 
was overcome by the god of light, Ahrmuzd. Among the Chal- 
deans, the sign lor a god was a star, and the temples were con- 
structed in strict relation to the stars. Even the divisions of the 
earth were arranged according to the "geography of the heavens." 
The temple in the center was built in terraces, each terrace sacred 

•The I)i»n of A»trun >my. a study <»t the temple worship and mrtbolo«T of the ancient 
£**>pi.«int. H) J. Norman L**ck)cr. New York and London: Mac M Ulan « Co. Price #$• 



246 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

to a planet or star, the upper shrine sacred to the sun.* A 
similar arrangement appeared in China at a very early date. 
The great temple of the sun at I'ckin was called the Temple 
of Heaven. It was also built in terraces, like the pyramids of 
Chaldca. It was surrounded by a wide pavement, and in the 
pavement were nine circles of standing stones, the circles repre- 
senting the nine heavens, the stones increasing in nines until 
the last circle was composed of eighty-one stones. In the center 
of these circles was the altar at which the emperor knelt on their 
New Year's Day, the twenty-first of December, at the winter 
solstice, and acknowledged himself inferior to the heavens, and 
offered sacrifices to secure a pros|>croiis season. The twenty- 
eight constellations of the Chinese zodiac were contained in this 
Temple o| Heaven. Tablets were erected to the sun, moon and 
stars. The Chinese also had the dragon and the tortoise tor 
emblems of the skv. There was on the shell of the tortoise the 

m 

"map of the heavens and the earth." The tortoise lives in "the 
lake of the stars." It has eight feet and six eyc;s. < )n its under 
shell it Ills the image of five summits and four canals, on its 
upper shell, images of sun, moon, eirdit celestial regions, seven 
stars of the great dip|>er ( which is the northern measure or 
bushel, making the celestial and terrestrial map. The four canals 
refer to the four rivers, the five Mimmits to the five mountains. 

The Chinese were called celestials because their empire was 
divided after the celestial spaces. The emperor was the center 
of all. The nine circles are peculiar to the Chinese, though Dr. 
Hahr speaks <>i nine squares which .ire alluded to in Persian 
and Hindoo sacred bonks, made of fo«ir celestial anil four ter- 
restrial, with a central square. 

Among the ChaMians, the luminous and celestial region of 
the Kast served .is the abode of the great divinities. In the book 
of .isifulfigy. compiled by the orders of Sarg^n i jnc> > H. C \ the 
country of Act .id nr Chaldt a, was the c nter •■! the universe, 
the foui rc.Nons, with K'.am t«» the east, 1'iinnui.i to the west, 
<i":ne to thr north, and Subarti to the south, formed "mystical 
sipian ■" and "planetary s t -al" and represented the "Cosmos." 

In America there was aN«» a map . •! the sky though the 
division** were different, for there were among the /unis and 
Xava.-ics, squares s(jrr-> ind.ng a central square, four for the 
hor./oiit.i! spaces, two fir the zenith \w\ nadir, with a central 
one, m.ik:ng srvri 

Ani'iii.- the l./v ;«tiaiis the conception of the skv was that the 

• 1 • ■ ' !. . ■ • • i- • • ■ » • " I r ; ' •.* r Vii-n 

I . ■ •• ■ .!■■'■ • :.^ ' ' a:.\ , . If. 

■ ■ . • • * ■ ■ * ' '. » ! r »! ,, ■ I'.'finfli 

■ • i . • ■■■■•-..-■. iii ■ (. 

^ ■ ■ « . - ■■.•."■ ■ •.:.■! ' * ! - ■ i • « I . 1 

i ■ -- ■ • ' . ■ ■■ • »i i ■ : • ■ . r r ■ . . «. I 

f .* . »■ '. i ••■.,:•. t* . t: ■. I.i »■€:•• i. * ril 4l 



THE ZODIAC AND ORIENTATION IN AMERICA. 147 

firmament was a double arch or sphere, the lower arch filled with the 
stars, the upper filled with the sun and moon. This was personified 
and represented as a female figure or goddess Nu, who bends over 
the earth iSeb). with her feet on one horizon and her finder tips on 
the other. The earth is a recumbent figure below the sky. This 
conception is represented in the cut. Fig. i. Here the human 
figure is double, the body of the goddess dividing the firmament 




into two spheres. The winged globe symbolizes the sun; the 
beetle with wings spread, symbolizes the moon; the figure hold- 
ing a boat in the hands symbolizes the passage of the sun over 
the arch of the sky. The whole figure furnishes a map of the 
heavens with the sky personified. There is, however, in America, 
a very similar way of symbolizing the sky divinity. It prevails 
among the Navajo Indians. The sky is a circular hut, over 
winch is stretched the personified arch of the rainbow, the feet 
upon one side of the hut, the head and arms upon the other, but 



248 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the rainbow itself forming an arch over the hut. The analogy 
is carried out still further in that the door of the hut is made up 
of different colored skins, the white to represent the dawn, the 
black skin to represent the darkness.* 

Here then we have very striking analogies in the way of 
representing the firmament and the sky in the east and the west, 
all nations having a very similar conception of the sky itself, but 
each une having a different map or chart in which it recorded 
its own mythologies, the divisions « if the sky being |>ccu]iar to each. 

2. The next question is in regard to the zodiac. The zodiac 
was very ancient and is supposed to have been known even in 
prehistoric times. Mr. Lockycr s] teaks of the zodiacs which 
were found in the ancient temples of Kgypt, one of them at 
Denderah. In this zodiac, the stars are represented as myth- 
ological personages sailing along in boats. The signs of the 
zodiac are the fish, the ram. the bull and the twins. In the 
middle section, the sun's course in different parts of the day is 
given. In this zodiac \\e find the animals peculiar to Kgypt. 
Tlie figure of the cow, little bear, jackal, the hippo|>otamus. 
Fart In: r east, we fun I that the constell.it if ins are made up also of 
animals, but animals which .ire more familiar. Here we have 
the (ireat Hear, Sirius; the I ireat Dog, AMebaran; the Hull; the 
Little Hear and the Dragon; aist» Aicturns. the Archer; ( »rion 
and the I'ieiades. These constellations were known to the 
ancients, lor they are recorded in tin* Scriptures in the hook of 
Job. m Homi-r, in llesi..d ,iml other < ireek poets, "t'anst thou 
find the s\vi 1 1 inline nces ■»! l'lei.nies or loose tin- bands of ( )non; 
can-t 'h"U liriii:; loith Ma// troth in his sr.ison, or canst thou 
gu:de Airt-.iMii with his s.-ns?' The i-ot'sti-'.latiotis were also 
known in Amen* a and u» r- re .; irded as parts ■>( the- zodiac and 
were :;i\e:i names wliu h r si milled tho^e uiiiMiion in the east. 
It is ml- n stii:.* !-• tr.i» ■ ■ ■.:! tin- » harts uhit li represent the skv 
anion ; tin- il.it' p n! !rih< s t iml-./o! ,\iu\ unc:v:!:/e.! 

Tii il'.u -i:.i!--. t!ie M..t.;i-i hav iihar! in w iiiih there is a tree 
and .i ir.iT ;! »w::g lS t !:.<■ r-»-t «■! ti:e tiee. 1 he tree j*. the tree 

ot lit\ I'l'll'.rh !i:e f:\er .Hi :!;■' !-•'.! .Will.; ob'wts the lllorn- 
in,; -!.ir. !'::« s:\ -t.irs.tin- • v ::i: .;■ tar . t!.e little star, the moon, 
the si m n ti^N .mil t: v >w\\ m ti:- p« . t o [uve. the w.ir hatchet, the 
I in h- a\ • Ms. r- \r ■ ■• n!» : bv :•• r : i'.i I- " ii^, tin- I ' west heaven 

i at 

re*: !::■„• • n .m ■ -i-. :?■•.• .u !i sj l - <» .•.,;,. >i ti-. i t»\ a pillar or ladder 
.it the iii>! » ! ?;. .:n- .:» ■'. e th-- :.- .i\ n- :- the .irch of the 

sky an ! ?;.e "•':■:: o.- i -n . •■■, r :ii-- arch I h ■ -* . hirt represents 
the v.-r.'is '!:: ..,;h a:.: ii th- .me- -! »rs • ! th ■ people parsed 
in-:, ii :\.' v - ,•: » : th. r & rt:. . 4 n ! \ :. ■■ t.ir.e , .ihcn *.hev had hi; nun 



i -••■" r*il. 

t • ' •■ - r 

,. ■ ... 



...«;■ .:: . t r • r i n 




Umi COURT JJfD 8AW7TUABT AT IDTtt. 



TH E ZODIAC AND ORIBHTATIOM IK AMKRICA. M9 

souls in the bodies of birds* The ascent to four heavens and the 
descent to them make up the number seven.* 

The Mexicans represented the zodiac by a figure of a man 
with the symbols for the days of the months arranged around 
the person, with lines drawn to the different parts: the rose, to 
the breast ; the eagle, to the right arm ; the vulture, to the right 
ear; the earthquake, to the tongue; the wind, to the liver; the 
rabbit, to the left ear ; the flint, to the teeth ; the air, to the breath ; 
the monkey, to the left arm ; the cane, to the heart ; the herb, to 
the bowels ; the tiger, to the left foot ; the serpent, to the male 
organ. These were the names of the days o! the months. Most 
of them were names of animals. They served an important part 
in the calendar system of the Mayas as well as the Mexicans. 
They were ordinarily arranged in squares following one another 
in regular succession, but they were occasionally, especially in 
the codices, arranged in the form of a maltese cross, the spaces 
or arms filled with symbolic trees, in which were birds, human 
figures below the trees. These animal heads, symbolizing the 
days, were at the corners or angles of the cross. 

3. The division of the zodiac seems to have varied with the 
different nations. Among the Chinese, there were twenty-eight 
stations ; among the ancient Accadians there were only twelve 
signs of the zodiac, but among the Mayas there seem to have 
been twenty : one for each day of the month, but there were thir- 
teen days according to the sacred calendar, and eighteen 
months according to the secular calendar. The signs of the 
zodiac were contained in the famous calendar stone called the 
Rosctta stone. The stone in Mexico which answers to the 
Rosctta stone is called the sacrificial stone, and is preserved in 
the museum of Mexico. It shows the skill of the Mexicans in 
arranging the symbols of the sky and making a calendar out of 
them. In this we see the face of the sun occupying the middle 
space, the four squares arranged around the sun, the twenty 
animal heads, or day symbols, in a circle outside of the squares, 
a fourth circle divided by four points of the compass, a fifth 
circle, with grains of corn, divided by the alternate angles, a sixth 
circle, divided by towers, a seventh, composed of the body of a 
double snake, itself divided into ten spaces, the whole making a 
map of the heavens as well as a calendar stone. 



re u«A4e Chart. Troth Annual Kepoit of Boreas of Ethnology, page 151. 



250 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



SOLSTITIAL ORIENTATION. 

The subject of orientation is more interesting than this one oi 
the zodiac or the calendar. The comparison between the system 
of the east anil the west is very instructive. 

According to ?.!r. Lockyer, the temples and the pyramids 
were all of them orientated. Some of them were orientated toward 
the sun, while mi the equator others were orientated to the rising 
and setting sun at the solstices, and still others toward the stars. 

The author thinks that the pyramids of Memphis, Tnis. Sais, 
Huh.istis were eijiiatorially orientated, that the temples of Abydos 
and Ameii-Ra were solsticially orientated. The alignment of the 
temples is the must interesting feature. There are temples which 
are so aligned that the sun at the summer solstice shines through 
the whole length. 600 yards, and shines upon the shrine in the 
deep interior, causing it to shine with a "resplendent light." This 
was the case with the temple at Amen-Ra, as well as the more 
modern temple Kdfu. The entrance to this latter temple was 
guarded by a massive exterior pylon. This reduced the light 
so that it should shine int<> the temple itself. Further, the arches 
from the entrance to the end, was covered so that within the 
penetralia, there was only a dim religious light, but the sun 
shone through the entire temple and struck upon the wall of the 
shrine at the back. The temple was directed toward the place 
of the sun's setting, and the narrowing doors were m> contrived that 
the temple should prove a gn.it astronomical telescope. The 
narrow shaft ot light was directed and concentrated until it 
reached the shrine, which answeied as the t ye piece. We have 
here the true origin of our present method ol measuring time. 
The m.v'mticcnt burst .if ■[■/lit .it sunset into the sanctuary would 
shu.v that a new tr.:e sul.ir year was beginning. The summer 
soNtice was the time when the Nile began to p.sc. The priests 
weie en.ib'.f 1! to determine not only the lerv/th of the year, but 
the exai t tim*- of its i ommenffrncnt. Tins, however, they kept 
to themselves. The year in uiinmon use, called the vague year, 
be/an .it dihYrent times «.f the true year through a long cycle. 
Here we find th'- anal /v between tin- Iv'votian and the American 
systi-iii% \i-ry startling There were two calendars in America 
— •iiif r«rni' l»ii thi* \,i- , iu' or O'liiiiiun year, the other recorded 
the -acred year 

The effort #■! \\v priests was t ■ keep the people ignorant of 
the s.icnd yi-ar. I in- vague y«ar was corrected by intercalary 
days, whi' ii were n.i< n*d to the sun The system of orientation 
helped the priest t» ket p the i.i>n>!ar correct. There seems to 
have been a'.su two -v^teiiis nf orientation, one for the temples, 
the itlur !■ r the palace. The temples were orientated to the 



SOLSTITIAL ORIENTATION. 251 

solstitial sun, but the palaces to the cardinal points. We find, 
at least, that the shrines were so placed upon the pyramids that 
the sun would shine through the double door- way and strike 
upon the tablets upon the back of the inner sanctuary, where 
were the various symbols of the cross, tree, bird and sun. The 
light would cause these symbols to stand out clearly. The 
offerings were presented to these as if they were divinities. They 
were offerings to the nature powers and the sky-divinities as 
much as they were to the sun-god. In the palaces at Copan the 
idols which contained the portraits of kings were arranged around 
the four sides of a square. There were altars in front of the 
idols, but we do not learn that there was any effort to direct the 
rays of the sun into the faces of these idols. There was a great 
difference between the temples and the palaces in this respect. 
Kvcn the alignment of the walls of the temples formed an angle 
with the walls of the palace and its courts, showing that there 
was a regard to the solstitial sun in the temples, but an orientat- 
ing to the cardinal points in the palaces. 

The most interesting of the Egyptian temples were those that 
were drawn out of line on account of the precision of the equin- 
oxes. The duration of the temples was such that every three 
hundred years there would need to be a change in the direction 
of the axis of the temple or the light of the star would be ob- 
scured, as the stars were slowly changing their places in the 
sky. The discover)' made by Mr. Lockycr was to the effect that 
the temples which were drawn out of alignment was not 
owing to the symmctryphobia, but the lack of symmetry, or as 
owing to another intent or purpose. Some of the temples had 
become useless by reason of the change of the position of the 
stars. The ancient temples would have an alignment favorable 
to the old position. The later temples would have their align- 
ment at an angle. In this way the date of the erection of the 
temples may be calculated, the position of stars forming a 
measure which would determine the lapse of time between the 
two classes of temples. This may seem theoretical, yet the 
author has made many remarkable discoveries and has furnished 
a clue for the solution of some of the dark problems in Egyptology. 
The book is quite revolutionary in this respect. He says: M In 
the early days, 3000 or 4000 B. C, we must assume that the 
people had not the slightest idea of the precessional change, but 
with a star changing its declination in an average way the same 
temple could not be used to observe the same star for more than 
two or three hundred years. At the end of that time, if they 
wished to observe a particular star, they must either change the 
axis of the old temple or build a new one. As a matter of fact, 
the axis of the temples have been changed. A great deal of 
work has been done on many of the temples in order to give 
them a twist. He refers to the temple of Luxor as an illustra- 



2T>2 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

tion. The suggestion is that after the temple had been built a 
certain number of years the amplitude ot the star had got a little 
out of the initial line, so the direction was changed and an outer 
court was added. Afterwards there was another outer court, and 
another remarkable change, in fact, four well marked deviations. 
The temple represented in the frontispiece is a restoration by 
the French commission. It represents a solemn ceremonial 
which took place at the great festival of the Nile rising, and 
the summer solstice. Besides the morning ceremonial there 
were processions of the gods during the day. How long these 
morning and special yearly ceremonials went on before the dawn 
of history we, of course, have no knowledge. The morning star 
watched by the Kgyptians at Thebes, certainly 3000 B. C, was 
Sirius, the brightest of them all, and there is completed evidence 
that Sirius was not the star first so used." 



o- 



NnTKS. 

TilK plate* used tt> illustrate the editorial were kindly loaned by Mac- 
Mil Lin \ ("i>. of New York. 

Till fourth vfllum* rf the Journal rf '.tmsri, .in Etkncfrgy is devoted to 
a description «-f the Snake D.ime. 

Tin: tenth annual volume of the Hutcau of F.lhnolo^y i> at hand. 

An *s< 11 sr « rrv in Arizona has t>een discovered and various parties 
ha\e started to vimi it. 

Tin r II 1 i» * "I i"Mi 1 \\ Mi -.i.i'M has lu-cn opened with appropriate cer- 
emonies. Mr. Holmes, of Washington, is in l>c the < orator «>t the depart- 
ment t ! .iMhrMpnlo^y. 

Tin ! t r 1 1 : s h Aril). 1 nln»'-.« .1! A-mm i.ition has elected Kcv. William ('op'.ey 
Winslow. o| I'MKiun. t.- !.d:. tir.tr\ mcinhcrship. He :•> h>:.orary fellow of 
the Ki ■■..!. An h 1 ■.!>.:;» al Ii:st::.:!r. 

I \i«»m\ I n V.im - Nit- re the A< ademv of Nicinr of I'.i- 01114 were 
dehw red ■!:r:ri»: ;).v ww.'.et !>v I id.;c \\ :• ki-r*ri trii . hy I'm! (tcurire I>avid- 
son. of the I . *v •■».i»»t H'irvn, the !.i!!er on the earl\ «issC"Vcr:es on the 
in»rt! wc-t t u.i^t. 

Ti mim 1 ''»■ Ii . Tin- ■ , ..i , :;tn:i.: of the Nde. proposed h\ the govern- 
n;< :.! ! 1 .:\p'. sl.nMJi'ii' t<i !:••«■■! the tivnple of U:s. nn the Island of I'hdat. 
Thr N <-« f.\ ■ t ,\ , . , .:-| i.ir.r- ha- p ;t on rci •■r-i a protest a K 'ai:.st the tleiinic- 

tioi; .■! t l .rv ::: -:. 'intents. 

A ■ 1 \ : 1 1 \ 1 ■ »■■: I :■•% > t-i ht- l.r! ! ::; : l ..s • it\ .?. V.u'ust. at which there will 
he .1:1 e*p« il ■'.» -p ir::inr.t •ir\ • :•■■! ti- «- # .h:.u:i >£\ t o! which Judge Wicker- 
sh.i::. w .. h.i\e ■ ' .ir^e. I here »:'! he /at hi red a lar^e nutnlicr i»f arch.ro- 
In.-i.i! n.-* and repre-e:.tat \es •■*. the \ar:o a is tnhes of Ind.ans. The 
i--..c« :;• ■. o: Vr-. Mr M k::ix:e. *h:< h is i-ne !" the finest in America. 
wi!'. !-c p..ti e<! i.s; e\ !..'■! » n. t .!*.'c Wu kcriham has Iktcu K mn tf Attention 



NOTE& 26S 

to the various specimens of shuffcts, which have been found in Washington. 
This is a weapon which if an exact imitation of the New Zealand weapon. 
Some of them are in stone, some in copper and some in bronze. An article 
on these specimens has been promised to The Antiquarian. 

I*a i. eolith ics.— The discussion on this subject still goes on, though no 
discovery of the bones of extinct animals has yet brought the rude relics 
of America into direct harmony with those of Europe. The question 
whether pottery is to be found in the paleolithic age in Europe also divides 
the archaeologists. 

A I'Ai'KK by Mr. J. A. Wat kins was read before the Academy of Science, 
New Orleans, on the Choctaws, Col. Preston Johnston, in commenting on 
it. said the Choctaws stood, in point of intellect, next to the Aztecs. After 
them came the Natchez, who were exterminated in 1731, but Mr. Beer 
stated that there were two towns where the Natchez language was still 
spoken. 

Rf.ck.nt Finds.-— At South work, England, near the Marshal Sea prison, 
many old piles, on which was marshy ground, perhaps the remains of lake 
dwellings, also many flint implements of the neolithic period. Near 
Oxford, England, some finds with regard to "river-valley" man, usually 
labeled "paleolithic man." Mr. A. M. Ik 11 is about to publish a paper on 
the find. Some interesting circles and walls, with altars or stones, designed 

(or holding tire, have been found in Wales. 

• 

1. Waltkr Ffwkes.— This indefatigable laborer in the field of ethnology 
has recently published several monograms on the Tusayans, one entitled: 
Tke Talu /.i/AV/i r 7/. a Tusayan Ceremony. The Xa-Ac XaiYa, by a 
lusavan Initiation Ceremony. Tke Kinship of a Tanoan- Speaking Com- 
munity. (>n Certain Personages also appear in a Tusayan Ceremony. 
A Centfal American Ceremony wkick suggests tke Snake Dance of tke 
Tusayan I'tl/a^ers. 

Thk following arc the positions which Mr. Fewkes takes on the Tusayan 
I.thnoiogy There is a great likeness between the Aztec God Quetialcoatl, 
the Maya Kukulcan, and the Hopi Ba lu-lti-kon, and the mythological being 
called Knlowitsi, all of them having the symbol of the plumed serpent. 
There is .1 vein of similarity running through the nature worship and 
swnUi'.i-Tii t f all American tribes, (The system of matriarchy prevails 
anions the southwestern alxmgines, as among the eastern savage hunters. 
The hush.tttti, on marriage, goes to the house of his wife, and the children 
l»t !«>:.,; to her gens. 1 

He write*. aUo. in reference to the death of Mr. A. M. Stephens, the fol- 
low \-..£ w r»ls. "1 he sail death of Mr. Stephens takes from American ethnology 
a ::.- t 'iesnteii and 1 onscicntous observer, and the only white man who 
n.-ild Se tailed an adept in their languages. I hope some one will arise 
uho wj.l -tudN them with the devotion he has shown for the last twenty years." 



254 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 



HOOK REVIEWS. 

Folk Titles of Angela. Fifty Talcs, with Ki-mbundu Text. literal English 
Translation, Introduction and Notes. Collected and Edited by Hcli 
Chatclain, late I'nited States Commercal Agent at Luanda, West 
Africa. Boston and New York: Published for the American Folklore 
Society by Houghton, Minim & Co. 1804. 

Now that the geographical problem of the dark continent has been solved 
and Europeans have penetrated the deep interior, it is high time that the 
folklore of the native tribes was collected, for the experience in America 
is a warning. Here there was an opportunity fifty years ago which was not 
improved, and now it is exceedingly difficult to collect the folklore of the 
Indian tribes, and when collected it is difficult to separate it from that 
which has l>cen introduced by the white man. The author speaks of the 
failure of African explorers to furnish anything more than accessory parts, 
but gives much credit to the missionaries for revealing the menmnic archives 
of the African nations, among whom are Krapf and Steere in East Africa, 
('.rout, Colcnso and Burner in South Africa, licntly Mackey in West Africa. 
He say* that South Africa is the best worked field. Week published 
translations of forty two short tales collected by the <«erman missionaries 
in 1 Wo; Dr. Callaway, tKfr> 70. printed his /u!u nursery tales and religious 
system of the Zulus, containing the Zulu tradition of creation, ancestor 
worship, divination, etc.; Theal. in iS>V>, his volume on Cattir folklore. The 
following characteristics of African folklore are mentioned: 1. Many of 
the favorite hemes of mythology and peculiar modems which have t>een 
called universal can be traced through Africa from sea to sea; e x'-. the story 
of Keynard. the fox, etc. 2. It is especially ru h in animal stories. Each 
personified animal it made to play the same role V A great nuinVr of 
stones arc used to at count for the origin of natural phenomena. 4. Super- 
stitions are similar to the popular conceptions of the Aryan and other 
storks of mankind. <;. In Afrit an folk tales the animal world and the 
spiritual world arc orgam/ed and governed just like the human world. In 
Angola the elephant is the supreme king of all animal t reation. The author 
says that the repeated assertion that Africans are fetn hist* in utterly false; 
nor are they polythcists or idolaters, for they believe in one great invisible 
<fod, though they do not formally worship him. A few generalizations about 
the people of Afru a are given in the introduction. as follows "What con- 
stitutes a nationality in the natural state is much less the political orgamx 
atum than the language. A people sj»eaking one language Constitute a 
nation. ea» h tribe has it> own dialect." "As fathcrhoml in never absolutely 
certain, the mother determines kinship and heredity." In former times 
every tntie had a « hicf. or king, chosen m one family according to the 
tribal law of su< cession, lath native 1 immunity forming a village or town 
is governed by a chief. The council of elders forms the legislative and 
cor.tr.Iln.g power and is com(»osed of all the adult males. This council 
delegates the eiciul:ie |»ower to the ihief. I'rofessiofial medicine men 
constitute a kmd of »ci ret order. They secure the friendship of the demon* 
by presents or by s. ( i rttue. This constitutes the only visible worship or 
cult of the Hai.tu negro. Here, then, we see the striking analogies between 



BOOK REVIEWS. 256 

the African tribes and the North American Indians. These analogies are 
given in the introduction to the book. One cannot find them in any of the 
folk talc* which constitute the body of the book. In fact there seems to be 
a great contrast between the folk tales here published and those found in 
any other part of the world, and in this respect the book is somewhat dis- 
appointing. There are many other parts of Africa where the analogies are 
perceptible in the folk tales themselves and one is interested in reading the 
translations, because of the frequent resemblances. The Folklore society 
of America deserves great credit for publishing the book, as it is not likely 
that any publishing house would make it pay except as subscriptions were 
first secured. It is introductory to a series, and the hope is that the series 
will grow until it furnishes the means for comparative study and would 
make a library of itself. 

A MwHii of Many Cities, or Tell-eLHesy. Excavated by Frederick Jones 
Bliss. Si. A. New York: Mac M Ulan & Co. 1894. 

In the autumn of i8go Mr. F. J. Bliss, the son of the missionary at Beirut, 
was asked to carry on the excavation which had been begun by Dr. Petrtc 
at Tcll-cl-Hcsy, in Southern Palestine. He began the work in March, 
iS, ; i. He uncovered the foundations of eight different cities and reduced 
half the mound, which was sixty feet high, to the level of the plain. The 
cities which he uncovered belonged to the period which elapsed between 
the exodus from Egypt to the exile, from the seventeenth century B. C. to 
the fifth century B. C, and for this reason his excavations were interesting, 
for they were calculated to throw light u|k>ii the Scripture history. The 
ti r-t < ity was at a depth of sixty-five feet. In this he found a group of 
copper relics, spear heads, ad/es, knives and axes, which, in many respects, 
resemble those found among the emblematic mounds of Wisconsin. To 
these he gives the date of 1700 B. C. 

In the second city he found blast furnaces, designed, probably, for baking 
pottery. He gives this the date of 1400 B. C. 

In the third city he came upon a tablet which contained an inscription 
written in the cuneiform language. This tablet has been deciphered. It was 
translated by Dr. A. II . Sayce, and proved to be the other end of a corres- 
pondence which had been carried on between the King Amenhotep III. 
of Egypt, one of the pharaohs, and Zimnda, the governor of Lachish It 
appears that in 1 88 7 the tablets were discovered in Egypt at Tcll-cl- 
Amarana by a peasant woman, also written in the cuneiform. This corres- 
pondence seems to have contained the buned records which speak about 
the <la\s «•{ Abraham, when he pitched his tents in the neighborhood of 
Hebron. It was a single tablet, but is very eloquent in its lesson. The city 
appear^ to have belonged to the Bronx c Age, for there were found in it 
arti< let resembling those which belonged to the Swiss lake-dwellers of the 
early brotirc age. A large spear with a rivet, bronze chisels, a borer or 
dn'.l. h.nr pins, needles with eye-holes, a bronze knife, pottery painted In 
red .u.d black. We thus form an idea of the culture of the period, a culture 
which elsewhere was not attended with writing. 

In the fourth city (depth thirty-two feet) there were found a bronze idol 
w:th gold collar, pottery, Mgurenes resembling those of Greece, alto a 
building made of mud brick, walls five feet thick. Scarabs and beads, cov- 
ered with stags, resembling those found by Schleimann, at Troy, and many 



356 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

bronze objects, also corn grinders, resembling the ollas, as found in California. 
This was a Phu-nician city. A very interesting article was a button or stud, 
resembling the sj>ool ornaments of America, but containing on its surface 
one of those peculiar symtwhc Manitnu faces, with eyes made up of con- 
centric circles, nose, mouth and eyebrows made from a double crescent. 

From the fifth to the eighth cities, iron tools were found. We learn from 
this book that the art of writing was known before the time of Moses. We 
have also a picture of the state of society which prevailed before the exodus 
and in the time of the Judges, and are able to compare u with the picture 
of Ci recce and Asia Minor as brought out by Homer in his Odyssey, the 
arch.rological relics furnishing the records in one case and the poem in the 
other. These discoveries enable us to understand the Scriptures better. 

Car tier to Frontenac. ilecgraph'ual Discovery in the Interior of Sorth 
. / merua in its //tsti >ri t a I Relations \IS34 } tyoo. With full C artt >craf>k ■ 
/* al Illustrations from Contemporary Sources). By Justin Winsor. 
Iloston and New York. Houghton, Mi til in & Co. l8»/4. 

The history of discovery, as illustrated by maps, has been a favorite study 
with Mr. Winsor for many years. and he has had unusual privileges in pros- 
ecuting it. as the collection of maps in the library of Harvard College is 
unrivalled. This collection was begun by a Boston merchant seventy rive 
years ago. These maps received their first presentation to the public in the 

"Narrative and Critical History." The history divides itself into four per- 
iods, one of which began with (artier, another with Champlain. a third with 
Marquette, Jolict, I.aSalle, and a fourth with Kroiitenac. As the coast line 
of America was slnwlv developed the two continents t>egan to be distin- 

f [utshed, b'.it the separation from Asia was still hidden the notion remaining 
»»ng after the death of C ••lutuiuis that m some way ( h;na was to be reached 
cither b\ sailing around the land to the south or the north, or through the 
land by M>tnc open w.tter < otir«e. Tht- notion led manv of the explorers 
up the M. 1. aw rem e, through the • I1.1111 of l.ikes. up the i-'ox. and down the 
Mi»*i'Un, and up the "l--: ►: mer. " with the h.pc ot finding ihe *«»uth sea or 
the w.itrr wav ti» Iii'!..i. The tic tinn «t a great ir.i:.*i online:. ta! sea was hut 
ehn.'.natcd i;:il:i l'i(i <»rie hundred and tittv \c.iis alter the first d:sn>vcry. 
keviu'i.iti.t. the Jesuit, Imped to reach l'h:na .it r i-s th«- wi. Ivrnesv The 
ag;:re»sn»ns ••! the I r« •* ju* ,;•*, by whn h the Hut<>:.s a:-.! .\l^>i!.*|'s.n% were 
swept f r • 'in tl.e >t. Lawrence, f *t'k:.i :i with i haiiip.asri'- ta::.pa ^:i. llu! the 
sub^rij'ieTit resident e o! the It -ii:t-» an:on N * the I ri«j':ti> hrnu^ht o it the fact 
that war parties wire t tied • <tit to gn t»« the a?iljr\!s n! a /Tea! r \ cr. which 
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THE 



Jlmmom Jlutiqmman. 



Vol. XVI. Seitkmber, 1894. No. 5. 



A CONTRIBUTION TO CHACTA HISTORY. 

By John* A. Watkins. 

The Chactas were a noble race of men. Their policy was 
jMNice. hut they were always ready to defend their rights against 
aggression, no matter from what source it might emanate. The 
jK.\ice of the nation was seldom menaced by internal dissensions, 
but there could be no friendship with their restless neighbors, 
the Creeks. They maintained friendly relations with the French, 
and atter wards with the English, but in process of time a great 
change took place; a nation had suddenly sprung into existence 
to whom conquest was a pastime; a nation strong in its indi- 
viduality, peaceful in its policy, fixed in its determination not to 
submit to a divided empire. While this nation possessed lands, 
extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains, 
with the exception of a few aboriginal claims, it was their settled 
poluy to extinguish these as circumstances might demand. The 
question of right was not entertained, consequently the Chactas, 
f«»r many years, had been looking forward with anxiety to a time 
when they would be called upon to part with their lands in 
Mississippi. But while the subject was discussed among all 
classes, there was only one opinion. A demand was made they 
sh^uM meet it in a projier spirit, and treat upon such terms as 
if both were independent nations, possessed of equal rights, and 
Irt < to buy or sell, as interest or inclination might prompt. It 
was li.mcult to f>eisuadc the masses that the United States would 
act hi v;<mh! faith, should a sale be made, and in addition, they 
were rJmtant to abandon their homes, the scenes so long 
famf.iar to them, the graves of their ancestors, with many other 
cherished recollections, which would naturally cling to them 
wherever their future destination might be. 

In 1S20 the crisis came; the government appointed commis- 
sioners to negotiate for the purchase of part of their lands. The 



260 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

agents for this object were well selected, being Generals Jackson 
and Hinds, under whom many of them had served in the Creek 
war of 18 13-14. When the commissioners met at Doakc's 
Station, although there was a good deal of discussion, the ques- 
tion was settled ujx)n such terms and conditions as were accept- 
able to both parties. Whatever objections might have been 
raised, were easily removed — the sale was voluntary on the part 
of the Indians, the terms proposed being such as they might 
accept without a sacrifice of their honor. In addition to a large 
amount of money, they agreed to cede an equivalent in lands 
west of Arkansas, with a guarantee that the newly acquired 
territory should be held in perpetuity, unless, in the meantime, 
they should be required for other purposes, and then — and then — 
well, it is useless to s|>eculate on a future, which to-day threat- 
ens to send them farther West, if such a place can be found, 
unless they compromise by admitting into their midst an element 
which, in a few years, will despoil them of their lands and reduce 
them to a vassalage more degrading than abject slavery. In 
making this sale, a reservation of fitty-four sections was made, to 
which the government added fifty-four sections, the whole to be 
held and sold by the United States for the establishment of 
schools among the Chactas. 

As late as the early part of the present century the subject of 
education had not attracted the attention ot the Chactas, though 
some of the mixed bloods had been taught to read ant! write, 
and at a later d.iv a few oftho.se had been sent to distant schools 
and on returning to the nation showed to the people the value 
of that knowledge which elevated the white man in the scale of 
intelligence so t.ir above the Indian. One of the young men 
named Ross studied law and apparently had a bright and useful 
future befiirc him. as he was young and possessed a high order 
of talents, was highly esteemed by the whites, and was acquiring 
a fair reputation at the bar, but suddenlv and without anv known 
cause he committed suicide near the residence «•! mv lather. 
After him no fhacta ever became a professional man in Mississ- 
ippi — though there were some preachers of cminem e, among 
whom the most noted was Israel I'oNom. who was a missionary 
among his jx.opIc f« »r thirty-five years and, as I have been told, 
had a gnat command ••! language, in taLt, was a man of a high 
order of eloquence. The time, however, had arrived when this 
lethargy had to give way to other demands. The heads of the 
nation had fr« qu ■■■ntly visited Washington, where they came in 
contact with the first men of the countrv and could not but real- 
ize the disadvantages under whu.h thev labored lor want i»f that 
general information so necessary in discussing questions which 
affected the relations between the two races so broadlv sundered 
bv the habits, manners and customs of each. At this date the 
spirit «»l enquiry was actively employed in devising the ways and 



A CONTRIBUTION TO CHACTA HISTORY. , 261 

means of bettering their condition. To-day they have in the 
Indian Territory six well equipped schools, for which the nation 
pays the expenses of four, while two of them are academics— one 
for each sex, where tuition is free, but the pupils have to pay 
board. The result is that they have lawyers, doctors and preach- 
ers who, being familiar with both languages, can transact busi- 
ness and teach the learned as well as the ignorant. Pushmataha, 
one of the chiefs of the nation, was a warm advocate for the 
establishment of public schools for the education of the Chactas, 
but did not live to witness the success which crowned the reser- 
vation made at DoaJt's Station. 

The great chief was born in 1764 on the east bank of the Oka 
Nakshobi, or as corrupted by the white man, Oka Noxubee — 
stinking water — two miles above Macon, on what was known in 
after years as the Howard plantation. Near the place of his 
birth there stood, and may still stand at this day, a large black 
oak. which marked the birth place of their great chief. The lit- 
tle log cabin in which he first saw the light has long since dis- 
ap|>carcd t but traditional location has been faithfully preserved 
by a few old pioneers of Noxubee County yet lingering amidst 
the scenes of their youth. He was at an early age elected one 
of their chiefs, and tradition says that he made a number of raids 
in the < >sagc country, but these traditions, which may be found 
in McKinley and Hall, rest upon such a slender foundation that 
they are too feeble to sustain the truth of history. I shall, there- 
fore, discard them all and only relate one which was kindly 
furnished me by H. S. Halbcrt, of Mississippi, who heard it from 
a son of one of those who was in the expedition. Mr. H albert 
has devoted much time in the last fifteen years to collecting 
Chacta traditions. Some years prior to the Creek war of 1813, 
accompanied by thirty of his chosen warriors, equally ambitious 
with the chief to gain glory, booty and scalps, Pushmataha 
crossed the Mississippi, hoping to surprise some of his old ene- 
mies, the ( )sages, or Washashi, as they were called in the Chacta 
language, and though the risk was imminent the honor would be 
enhanced — they could then return victors and exhibit to their 
friends the numerous scalps of their enemies. In this enterprise 
they would probably have been successful but for an untoward 
accident. They had approached within a few miles of the vil- 
l.ii;e tluy designed to capture when they discovered an Osage 
warrior in a tree gathering grapes and throwing them down to a 
woman — probably his wife — who picked them up and put them 
m a basket. As he wished to take the Osage alive two parties 
were detailed to surround the tree and cut off his retreat. In 
this they might have been successful had not one of the party 
tr<>d on a dry stick, which, cracking under his weight, gave the 
alarm to the Osage, who immediately began to descend the tree, 
but in his haste he fell and was immediately dispatched and 



262 THK AMKRK'AN ANTIQUARIAN. 

scalj>cd by his enemies. As soon as the first alarm was given 
the woman fled with the fleet ness of a hunted deer and though 
pursued by several warriors made her escape. Knowing that 
the woman would give the alarm, the chief and his associates, 
like prudent men, retired with their single trophy, as they were 
not strong enough to meet the combined forces of the Osages. 
The expedition being abandoned they hastily retraced their steps 
and returned to the nation, having a single scalp, taken from a 
defenceless warrior, while a woman had baffled the pursuit of 
their fleetest runners. The gl«»ry of this achievement will scarcely 
place him in the line of heroes, though fame has been won by 
acts less d.iring and in situations of less peril. I suppose, how- 
ever, according to the fashion of the times, which has been preva- 
lent in our day, the courage of the little band was duly extolled by 
the commander, while it was laughed at by those who had seen 
service and an led in winning victories. 

The Chactas and < >sages had a war of a predatory character, 
wlmh in said to have extended over twentv-.seven years — small 
parties of each being engaged in these raid*. The last of these 
was made bv the W.isha-hi m ( Ki.'es, in |S|;, when thev pene- 
trati-d the Chact.i Nation, as t.ir .is the present Winston county, 
killing people and burning h«»i:se». besides stealing horses. This 
was the end ot their triumph ,\ large force i»l w.v.vu.Vi/ war- 
riors, ehu fly from l'lnna^hook village, w.is hastily enrolled, pur- 
sued an«l o\eit"«»k the mv.idi is. when a i mining h.;ht «■! several 
d.iys 01 cur red, in uhuli M\cr.il w.nriots ■ *n both sides were 
killed .mil W'.nd-i!. I*':na!!y the Washashi -Acre t ■ • r i ' * I to re- 
treat to tin- \\i-%i suit- !•! i lii- M:-»M^:ppi, alter whii h x li - y never 
made anoth' i ,itt- n:pt to r:\a-ie tiie t "h.n t i N tti n l\ed I'-'X. 
a:i i\'\ Indian wain- ■;. uli * dud .ib«-ut loitv \«ii> • •■' ,| . w.is 
wound- d i:i this ii:iii;;[i.; t . :.! I ; r«nu hi::: the -t-:\" « ■! the long 
i.-'nt'-*i :"!•.'.•• n !:.'■ * h.u ! i» .ir:d ' '^..f* u l- nht.iinrd. l'mna- 
-h m i k :•'.. !.■■■ -!• ■■ ■ i -i l >-' t ■•!!•■ .it; i i a ha ! i:: ■ - i.h! o* the pn sent 
\:!!.i ■•■.! i.att-'i :■■ . ■-. i h.i. t.i t". •■ :\ii!: . n::". -".':•. /.'■.• . 

lii:- i "h i' ! i- h.i ! .i :■ :' l- ■ . t :n '.-r -! •: >.n ■»! the:: dead. 

■ ■ ■ 

.i tie* r.; '■'. u ■ ! \\\\: h I »■ :n t: •■ '. in ■ ■' mv < ■ i." -I'-'nd- 
eiit. a! .\'» .i ':. - v. ■: I •,;':.:; - " :■■ : n \' m :: ■ -r '*;.•• n!id .-ut. 

•;:■■ .ii!y m d <•: b.r.d. -die *a\> 
! :■ w n t.iki-n !: ill ti';* :t:.i:ih -■. r :;»t ot 
1 ■•■: i:: i ■....■ \ir.f» n in the early 

' V. :■■ \ i::v :i d:es .i *■ .iff »;d is 
..e !: - . ■•: :...;': «n -ei.;i; !■• be sale 
Irons • ■ d :i t:;-- !■•;< ' \. ■ t.. : i i :• ■ :y u^ \a.\. «-n his 

■ •: • er -.:•■. *!. :i a :" i ::'*.. ! : ' ;r --. .:i w i ■ ; :t «>vm the b hIv. 
;i-\ : th :• .'. : n.- ..:*. •! t . .t ^\ I:. :i th "bone picker" 

v. : ■ ■:■: e: I ; k ti. ': ■■•>.■* • ". \ the ':■ :i -. an-! ;■ .t the 
b :. • :n .. \ t "'.•■:.• i i w ■. ■. ! in- .•.:-.: \* .t i:: t':;e h »x and 

■ 

ti.e :• x a.i^ : :: ,iv..r. :n tii b »:•.♦_■ h ■i--e 1 a liouse >et apart to 

• • • 



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l! 



A CONTRIBUTION TO CHACTA HISTORY. 26$ 

receive them, not far from the edge of the town. Here would 
be a large collection of the people at the time the box was 
placed away. The bone-pickers had some kind of ceremonies, 
but did nut sec about them. Twice a year, spring and (all. the 
people would assemble and have a great gathering, to weep over 
the boxes of the dead. The two families of the dead, on the 
same day, would meet; one family would weep and mourn and 
the other dance, and on the second day the other would weep 
and mourn, and the other would dance; and so all wept and 
mourned for their dead. Then the bones or boxes of the dead 
were brought out, and wept and mourned over, and then they 
were replaced in the same house. The bone- pickers would re- 
ceive their presents for their work done, and that closed the 
scene." 

She adds: "I suppose that was the funeral service. The 
Chactas here have a way of appointing a day for the funeral ser- 
vices of their dead. They choose the minister and inform him 
about the time; then they have the services at or near the camp 
ground, where the graves of their dead are commonly made. 
They usually bury near the meeting place. They prepare enough 
of food for all who may come; and after the preaching of the 
funeral sermon, all who wish and are in sympathy with the 
family, repair to the grave to weep; this is done partly for the 
Inrncht of those who could not be at the burial. Others prefer 
the white man's way, to have the whole services gone through 
at the time of the burial." 

A few words about schools will not be out of place. There 
Arc four national schools, of which one is for negroes, and costs 
the nation £10,000, and two orphan schools, one for each sex, 
which costs the nation £15,000. and accommodate one hundred 
pupils each. There are two other schools, one for each sex, 
which cost our nation $20,000. There is a Baptist academy 
where the pupils pay board, but tuition is free. As every child 
is entitled to tuition from neighborhood schools, we receive 
them. We have likewise a mixed school, and I venture to say, 
that we are doing as much or more good than any of the large 
schools. We do the best we can and the nation can not inter- 
fere. The Home Mission Board helps us to help ourselves. We 
have had this year 13; students, some have gone home to work, 
which leave ninety nine. 

I believe it was common among some of the western Indians 
to flatten the forehead of their infants. I do not know that this 
custom prevailed to any extent among the Chactas; I never saw 
but one example of the kind. A basket was made for this pur- 
pose, in which the infant was securely fastened, and then a light 
ba^ of sand was placed on the forehead, where it remained, being 
removed at intervals, until the desired shape had been obtained. 
This same basket was used for another purpose much more 



264 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

pleasant to contemplate, a pushkush — baby — was placed in the 
basket, which had a handle at the end through which a rope 
was passed; then the rope was thrown over the limb of a tree, 
where it remained during the day, except when it required a 
fresh supply of nutriment. I think this was a common practice 
among the Chactas. There was a noted peculiarity among 
Indian babies, I have no recollection of ever hearing one cry; 
they may have indulged in an occasional squall when I was not 
present. 

When the war of 1813 occurred between the I'nited States 
and the Creek Indians, through the influence of Geo. S. Gains, 
who had been a factor in the nation since 1K02, and who, by his 
upright conduct and fair dealings, had won their confidence, 
Pushmataha was induced to organize a battalion of four com- 
panies, numbering 135 men, with which he joined General Clai- 
borne, and shared in the glory of the campaign to the Holy 
Ground, where he and his warriors distinguished themselves and 
were eulogized by the commander; in this campaign he was a 
lieutenant colonel. Again, in 1814, he joined General Jackson, 
and was with him at Pensacola. He now held from the I'nited 
States a commission ot colonel, though he only commanded 
fifty-three warriors. — For this information I am indebted to the 
Department at Washington. When old Hickory was informed 
that the British intended to make an attack on New Orleans, he 
lost no time in concentrating all his available forces at that point; 
but before leaving Mobile he detailed Major Blue, with a small 
command, to which the Chacta contingent was added, to act 
against the Creeks, and bring the war with that nation to a close 
with as little delay as |>ossible. Here the Indians were of valu- 
able service, as they knew .ill the haunts ot the Creeks, and 
could follow them unerringly to their secret retreats in the 
swamp. In .1 brief space of time their work was accomplished. 
Those that were not killed, or could not make their escape, sued 
for jK-aee, on any terms the vutors might impose. Thus, to 
Major Mine and Colonel Pushmataha was due the honor of hav- 
ing terminated tin- Creek war." 

After the sale of their lands at I)>ak's Station in iSju peace 
reigned anion/ the Chactas. and they were gradually adopting 
some useful trade taught them by their white neighbors, but they 
became a littie restive, owm.; t» the delay of the government to 
complv with the conditions • •! the sale, a delav which naturally 

1 ■ * 

provoked «!is« us-*mn, ;m! there wi-re many who did not hesitate 
to charge their deiitor with actin. 1 in bad faith. There *Tew out 
ot this s.ie a claim in favor ••» tin- Chactas, kn-»wn as the "Nct- 
proec «!■»," th*- character 0! whi-.h I have been unable !■■ discover, 
though 1 haw made d l:ge:it en juiry. b-.th in Mississippi and in 
the Indian I«rr:t-rv I hat :t was .1 \\i>\ claim is evidenced bv 
the fact that it was p.ud in r'S\ when it amounted to jl.oov ■uO. 



A CONTRIBUTION TO CHAOTA HISTORY. 266 

Why a delay of sixty-eight years should have happened is a 
mystery that the Secretary of the Treasury would find it difficult 
to solve, as there was such a plethora in the treasury during this 
ixrnod that the surplus was distributed among the states. It was 
for the purpose of obtaining a settlement of this claim that, in 
1X24, nearly all the chiefs visited Washington, where they had 
the pleasure of dining with the president and other distinguished 
characters, besides taking Lafayette by the hand, then on a visit 
to this country. But they got no money, though they were 
detained at the capital several months by vague and deceptive 
promises, during which the great chief and three others died. 
\\\g dinners and champagne did not agree with the habits of men 
w ho, in the nation lived on shukhota, tomfulla, peas and potatoes, 
intermingled with some wild game, and copious potations of bad 
whisky and West India rum, when they could be had. It finally 
told on Pushmataha, who, on the 23d of December, fell on the 
street at 9 a. m. and died at midnight. During his stay in the 
city, McKinlcy and Hall have made several beautiful speeches 
for the chief, but I forbear quoting them, as they appear too 
highly colored — though the chief was an orator, and had perfect 
command of the Chacta language. Chief Folsom, who attended 
the delegation in the two-fold character of interpreter and treas- 
urer, makes no reference to any speeches made by either of the 
chiefs, nor to the conversations said to have occurred while on 
his deathbed, though he was with the chief from the time he fell 
till he died. It is not probable that much poetry formed the 
staple of conversation between the hours of 9 a. m. and midnight 
"Birds and flowers" did not occupy his mind, nor do I suppose 
it dwelt on the solemn sound which follows the (all of a big oak 
tree, on a still day, in the midst of a vast forest. These speeches 
bear such a striking resemblance to the alleged conversations 
while on his deathbed, that I shall pass them by as of no historic 
value. 



266 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



THE CATAWBA INDIANS. 

By W. B. Ardrry. 

History says and tradition confirms it that the Catawba Indians 
came from the head waters ol the Catawba (Muddy) River sev- 
eral centuries ago. It is related that this pari of York County, 
where Fort Mill now rests, was settled by a tribe called the 
Sugaw Indians. When the Catawbas put in their appearance 
it is said that the Sugaws were annihilated by them. Hagler 
was the last kin); ot the Catawbas, and the only authentic his- 
tory the writer has seen ot these warriors is dated from his 
reign. It has been stated by some writers that they were the 
aborigines of York County. As late as the year 1760 they 
numbered three thousand souls. They had the bravery that is 
peculiar to the red man, but they were ever kindly disposed to 
the whites and their relations were always peaceluf. Their one 
especial redeeming trait and characteristic was their honesty. 

It was about this time that the first white man who ever set- 
tled in this section put in his appearance. Thos. Spratt obtained 
a lease trom King Hauler tor a tract of land five i..iles square 
to extend for a period of ninety-nine years. Until his coming, 
no pale face would dare to attempt to settle among them, but 
he was most exemplary in character. He was vcrv courageous 
and was just and upright in every particular, fie was thor- 
oughly acquainted with the Indians and soon won their confi- 
dence, and with it acquired a wondertul influence over them. In 
illustration of this an anecdote is told, one with which every 
child in this locality is acquainted. Spratt planted his residence 
about two miles trom what is known as Nation Ford, on the 
Catawba River and one mile trom the center ot the present site 
of Fort Mill. Some year* after he had cast his lot among this 
tribe a French dancing master happened along. He had a 
violin with him and to obtain the goi>d wishes ol the savages he 
stopped and played a few lively airs on his instrument tor their 
benefit. The Indians were delighted. In fact one of them was 
so pleased that he determined to possess himself with the music- 
making instrument, and after the traveler had proceeded on his 
way this warrior ran ahead in pursuit and alter overtaking him 
shot the Frenchman and captured the coveted prize. When 
Spratt heard ot the murder he determined to avenge the deed, 
and consequently, accompanied by a tew white friends named 
White and Krvin, and probably others who had lately settled 
here, went to King Hagler to obtain justice. The king was out 
on a hunt with his warriors when the whiles went in search ot 



THE CATAWBA IMDIAVa *S7 

him, but at last they cane up with him oo a high hOl about two 
mile* north of Fort Mill and near what is called Hagler's branch. 
After the leader of the whites had put the usual question "Are 
we not all frieods aod brothers," and the king answered in the 
affirmative, the object of the visit was stated and the king 
proudly declared that justice would be done. He sought the 
highest pointed of the hills and, after examining his rifle. Mew a 
loud blast oo his huoting horn* For several moments he kepi 
his keen eyes fixed upon every approach, and soon a large red 
skin was espied approaching with a huge buck upon his rack* 
As soon as ne was observedthe chief raised his rifle and taking 
long and careful aim fired. The victim of the monarch's justice 
fell desd. Hagler then turned and extended his hand to each of 
the whites and of course they had to be contented with his sav- 
age method of administering the law. 

Leases were then being granted to other white settlers 
through the instrumentality oTpubtic spirited Thos. Spratt, and 
gradually the red men began to be crowded out of their terri- 
tory. About this time Mr. Soratt dooated a mill site oo Steel 
Creek about two miles east of Fort Mill to a mao named Garri- 
son, and from this mill aod an old fort which was erected near 
the Spratt homestead the name "Fort Mill" was afterwards 
derived* The remains ot both of these can be seen to this day. 

It has been over half a century since the Catawba trine 
acceded to the proposition of the state of South Carolina to sell 
them their lands. By the use of whisky and other means the 
whites were fast swindling them out of their territory and to 
avoid trouble the state proposed the trade which was consum- 
mated.* A large number of the tribe went to North Carolina 
then to join the Cherokees, but this state refused to harbor them 
and they returned to the land of their forefathers in a wretched 
state. At one time, shortly after the revolution, it is said small- 
pox broke out amoog them and destroyed about one-half of 
their number. The Indian doctors had only one treatment of all 
diseases. This was called a corn-sweat and was administered 
by boiling ears of corn and packing them closely around the 
body while still hot The patient was then thrown into the 
river and was taken out dead about as ofteo as otherwise. 

Shortly after the revolution a shrewd white man induced 
several of the warriors to accompany him oo an exhibition tour 
through England. To the people of that country a "live injun" 
was something heard of, but never seen. Decked in their paint 
and feathers they carried things by storm by exhibiting their 
skill with the rifle and bow and arrow and imitating the war 
dance. However, they came to grief at last though, for the 
sharp white man to whom they had entrusted themselves 
betrayed them, and, after pocketiog the treasury balance, skipped 

•Th« CauwbM told iMi Uads to ttt tfatt la ttd tor $nsm 



268 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and left the warriors alone in a foreign land. Only one of the 
warriors survived the trip and reached home again. His name 
was Peter Harris, and an old tombstone now marks his resting 
place in the private cemetery of the Spratt family, which is sit- 
uated only a few yards from the corporate limits of Fort Mill. 

Thos. Spratt was always called "Kanawha" (pronounced 
"Kanoi") by the Indians from the fact that he went and fought 
with them against a tribe on the Kanawha River in Virginia. 
The fifth generation descending from "Kanawha" Spratt is 
represented in Fort Mill to-day. A great-grandson now occu- 

Cies the old Spratt homestead, which was erected here in 1812 
y a son of "Kanawha." It is a very fine old residence of an- 
cient architecture. 

Hagler, the last chief of the Catawbas, died childless. With 
him his rifle, horn, pipe, tobacco, etc., were buried, but his grave 
was afterwards rifled by gamblers who made the guards drunk 
who were appointed to watch over his grave for a moon (four 
weeks). Hagler left a sister who married General Newriver. 
A little girl was born to them and both parents died soon after- 
wards. She was taken charge of by Thos. Spratt and reared 
as one of his own household. She rever became queen of her 
tribe, but lived to a ripe old age. However, she rejoined her 
tribe and was given all the respect due a queen. 

The present condition of the Catawbas is wretched indeed, 
and no one can visit the "Nation" without feeling the deepest 
sympathy for them. Only about seventy of the braves are left, 
and of these I think there are only three full-breeds, and they 
haven't many years before them. Their settlement is situated 
seven miles trom Fort Mill in an east of south direction, on the 
banks of the river which bears their name. They live in small 
cabins almost hid among the high hills and deep valleys. They 
are surrounded by deep forests, but nothing but small game 
abounds, and very little ot this. Everything around them seems 
dead and ha* a very gloom v appearance. The men are still too 
proud to work much. They cultivate small farms and corn is 
their principal product. The women still make plain and fancy 
black clay pipes and other potterv, which thev exchange for 
other merchandise at the neighboring towns. Very lew people 
ever visit them. The last time I was there they showed me a 
baby made out of clay and which adorned one ot their mantels. 
They seemed to think that their greatest attraction, and it was 
ot very good workmanship. They all speak good English. 
Missionaries visited them years ago, but it is said that not one 
ot them has ever embraced the Christian religion, and 1 think it 
is the same to this day. Hilly George is the oldest and most 
influential member of the tribe, and he lives principally by mak- 
ing and selling bows and arrows. 

About two years ago several of the men started giving exhi- 
bitions, but I think they gave up their scheme after their initial 



THE CUIBIKB AMD EVOLUTION. MO 

performance a! this place. 'The features of the exhibition were 
the war whoop and daoce, bow and arrow practice, etc 

There are about twelve hundred people in Port Mill, about 
one-half of whom depend upon the two cotton milla for their 
support. Relics of the days when this section was the hunting 
grounds of the red men are frequently found. Arrowheads are 
scattered in profusion and very often an Indian grave is dug into 
and buttons, beads and probably a tomahawk unearthed. 



THE CUISINE AND EVOLUTION. 
By R. G. Abbott. 

Two of the principal scientific societies of Brussels have, dur- 
ing the past year, given considerable time to the discussion of a 
question which recalls the origin of civilization. This topic re- 
lates to the influence exercised upon the environment and upon 
man himself, by the transformation of the human alimentation 
through the action otjtre. 

The Belgian society of Geology, Paleontology and Hydrology 
were investigating the evolution of the quaternary fauna and the 
causes for the extinction of certain species; natural causes in 
some cases, artificial causes in others. The artificial cause is the 
action of man; an action of sufficient power and decisiveness to 
warrant his consideration from the point of view of a "positive 
geological force? 

ltcfore the quaternary epoch, (the first in which the presence of 
man is certain,) the extinction of species is manifestly due to the 
action of natural forces. Succeeding the quaternary epoch a new 
force appeared in the form of man, who is termed an artificial 
force by way of distinction to the natural forces; for the reason 
that art intervenes, a human procedure, the action of man trans- 
forming and dominating nature. 

Where did man receive the power to accomplish this trans- 
formation and subjection? By the utilization of fire. A com- 
munication to the Belgian Society of Geology, by M. Edouard 
Dupont, says: "Man is an anthropomorphism who has acquired 
an artificial regimen by the utilisation of fire; and by such utili- 
zation has placed himself above the natural laws of animals as to 
his food and his habitat." 

All the creatures of the animal reign were nourished exclusively 
upon natural aliments, undergoing no change of composition or 
preparation. Man alone forms an exception to this rule. He 
translorms the greater part of his food by the process of cooking; 
he mingles and combines various substances to form one dish; 



270 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

he composes new foods and adds to them divers condiments. lie 
alone prepares his food with fire; he only possesses a knowledge 
of the culinary art. The point of departure in this great modifi- 
cation of the manner of taking nourishment was the utilization of 
fire to heat the aliment. From a primitive frugivorous condi- 
tion man has become herbivorous and carnivorous; but he pre- 
pares his vegetables and meats with heat and does not eat them 
in the uncooked state as did the herbivora and carnivora of the 
animal reign. Almost the only aliment which he eats without 
artificial addition or preparation is fruit; an experimental proof 
that his natural regimen was frugivorous, as is further indicated 
by his anatomical structure. The actual regimen ol man is ac- 
quired by him. It is artificial, the product of his art. Now, this 
acquisition has resulted in vast consequences upon his destiny. 
The employment of fire having permitted him to add to his 
natuial alimentation that of the herbivora and carnivora, (which 
had previously been interdicted by his digestive apparatus.) he 
has thereby been enabled to find his nourishment in every local- 
ity, and his place of abode is no longer limited to those regions 
which furnish fresh fruits the entire year. He thus acquired the 
gift of ubiquity; he became cosmopolitan. 

The utilization ol fire is then the precursory fact of the pro- 
digious power that man has acquired over the natural forces. 
This single circumstance procured him the ability to transform 
his diet, and the possibility of wandering over the globe, inas- 
much as it removed from him the necessity of nourishing him- 
self in certain favorable localities and opened to him a career of 
travel. 

The correlation of cause and effect between the transformation 
of the natural regimen into an artificial regimen, and the faculty 
of ubiquity is of itself so evident that the relation of the two 
phenomena suffices to establish their dependence upon each 
other. Hut it is observed at the same time that a correlation of 
coincidence seems to appear between these two phenomena and 
the development of the intellectual faculties which dominate 
nature. ( )ne may then pertinently ask if it is not in the new regi- 
men that the cause of increased cerebral activity must be discov- 
ered, from which has resulted the human intellectual superiority; 
the power which has been given to its action upon nature the 
value of a "j>ositivc geological force." 



THE KOOTENAY I5DUH& S7I 



NOTES ON THE KOOTENAY INDIANS, THEIR HIS- 
TORY, ETC. 

Br A. F. Chanbbruun. 



II.-LINGUISTIC DATA 

In the accounts of the travelers in the first half of this century 
there are various stray notes relating to the Kootenay language. 
Ross Cox (1831) states: "They arc a very peculiar tribe. Their 
language bears no affinity whatever to that of any of the west- 
ern nations. It is infinitely softer and more free from those un- 
pronounceable gutturals so common among the lower tribes," 
(II., p. 153). Rev. Samuel Parker (1840) says: "They speak 
a language distinct from all the tribes about them, open and 
sonorous and tree from gutturals, which are common in the lan- 
guage of the surrounding tribes" (p. 307). The Prince of Ncu 
Wied (Lloyd's Translation, 1843) remarks: "Their language 
is extremely difficult to learn" (p. 509). The statement ol Rots 
Cox and Parker that the Kootenay language is free from gut- 
turals is remarkable when one considers the real nature of that 
tongue. Parker probably copied from the first without attempt- 
ing to examine into or verify the assertion. 

The earliest printed vocabulary seems to be that — "einige 
Worte der Kutana oder Kutneha Sprache** — cootained in pp. 
51 1-514 of Vol. II. of Alexander Philipp, Prins von Wied-Neu- 
wied s "Reise in das innere Nord-America in den Jahren 183a 
bis 1834" Coblenz, 1839 [-1841], 2 vols. 410. This vocabulary 
(of twenty-three words) is reprinted in the subsequent French 
translation (3 vols., Paris, 1840 [-18431, 8o\ at Vol. III., pp. 383- 
3SS, hut in Lloyd's English version (London, 1843,) we are in- 
formed that the translator thought the genet al public would not 
be interested in the vocabularies and so omitted them altogether. 

Horatio Hale, in "Vol. VII. U. S. Exploring Expedition 
(Philadelphia, 1846)," gives a list of 144 words "from a Cree 
Indian, who knew Kootenay.** This is immeasurably the most 
accurate of the early vocabularies, as the writer of these notes 
can testify from actual inquiry and experience. Mr. Hale's well 
trained ear was quick to catch many ol the most difficult sounds 
in the language. Until the appearance of the vocabulary of Dr. 
F. Boas, in 1889, Mr. Hale*s list seems to have been the one 
nuwt referred to by the few who noticed the language in their 
philological treatises. 

In the "Proceedings of the Philological Society (London, 
England)," Vol. II, 1850, pp. 191-206, Mr. T. Howse jrablished 
M Vocabularies of certain North American Languages,** in which 



272 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the Kutani is included. This ill-spelt, utterly unphonetic list ol 
words and phrases is reprinted by Dr. Latham in his "Elements 
of Comparative Philology (London, 1862)/* pp. 395-396, accom- 
panied by the following astonishing remark: "The Kutani vo- 
cabulary of Mr. Hale was obtained from a Cree Indian and is not 
to be depended on. This being the case, it is lortunate that it is 
not the only specimen of the language. There is an earlier one 
of Mr. Howse's, published in the Transactions of the Philological 
Society. It is as follows; being given in full as representing aU 
that is known of the language." Dr. Latham, besides doing 
this great injustice to Mr. Hale, seems to have been ignorant of 
the existence of De Smet's translation of the Lord's Prayer, 
which had appeared many years previously. Misled by him, 
others have, perhaps, made similar blunders. In his "O puscula 
(London, i860)," Dr. Latham also prints a list of Kootenay 
words from Howse. 

In "New Indian Sketches" (N. Y., 1863), by Father I. de- 
Smet, the veteran missionary to the Oregon, is printed (pp. 
11S-125) a vocabulary of some 220 words, entitled, "A Vocabu- 
lary of the Skalzi, or Kootenay Tribe, inhabitants of the Rocky 
Mountains, on the head waters of the Clark and MacGiloray 
Rivers. Taken during my trip of 1859" This is, on the whole, 
better than I lowse's, but DeSmet's ear, too, tailed to catch the 
gutturals properly, and especially the difficult //, which he ren- 
ders lf* % Howse rendering the same by /, //, Ihl. 

Morgan, in his "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the 
Human Family (Smith, Contrib. to Know! , Vol. XVII, Wash- 
ington, 1871)," gives some fifty words under this head from the 
KootenA y, "obtained from ( ieo. Gibbs in July, 1 860 \ pp. 293 302 ). 

In the "Zeitschrilt fur Ethnologie," Hd. VI, 1878, s. 419 459, 
Wilhelm Herzog, endeavoring to prove a relationship between 
the Yuma linguistic stock and the Kskimo and Aleutian, gives, 
in comparison, a tew words from Kootenay, taken from Hale 
and Howse. 

In )SS2, Friedrich M idler, in his great work, "(JrundMsz der 
Sprach-wissenschaft" t II. Hd., I. Abt., Wien., 1SS2, s. 42^ 430^, 
reprints the Kootenay numerals 1, 10, 11,12, 20, 30, 100, appar- 
ently trom Hale. 

The next printed vocabularies are those of Drs. Tolmie and 
Dawson, in their "Comparative Vocabularies of the Indian 
Tribes of British Columbia" tCieol. and Nat. Hist. Survey ol 
Canada. Montreal, 1SS41. The one <pp. 79U $7B» consists 
of 13O words ol the "Cpprr KiMitenuha Tril>e ;" the other some 
370 words, according to the schedule of Major Powell's "Intn)- 
duction to the Study ot Indian Languages," obtained trom "joe, 
a Kootenay Indian, at Joseph's Prairie, 1SS3." Both vocabu- 
laries were recorded by Dr. (J. M. Dawson. In the summer of 
18*^8, Dr. Franz Boas vLsited the Kootenay region, under the 
auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of 



THE KOOTENAY INDIANS, 27* 

Science, and his report, presented to the meeting held in 1889, 
(Filth Report on the Northwestern Tribes of Canada, London, 
18S9), contains (pp. 93-97) valuable notes on the phonetics, gram- 
mar and word-tor mat ion of the language. In a subsequent re- 
port (Sixth Report on the Northwestern Tribes of Canada, 
London, 1890), Dr. Boas, in a "Comparative Vocabularv of 
eighteen languages spoken in British Columbia (pp. 140-163),° 
includes the Upper Kootenay. In the possession of Dr. Boas 
are a Kootenay-English Vocabulary ot some 540 words, and an 
English-Kootenay Vocabulary of some 350 words. 

Rev. E. F. Wilson published in ••Our Forest Children, Vol. 
Ill, 1890, pp. 164-168, an article on the Kootenay Indians, ot 
which pp. 167-8 are taken up with a (ew grammatical notes and 
a vocabulary of some 100 words and phrases. The grammati- 
cal items were seemingly obtained from Dr. F. Boas, the vo- 
cabulary from Mr. Michael Philipps, the agent of the Dominion 
Government amongst the Kootenays. 

The writer of these notes spent the summer of 1891 amongst 
these Indians, obtaining a considerable amount ot linguistic data. 
Part of the results ot his investigations have been published in 
the Report to the British Association (Eighth Report on the 
Northwestern Tribes ot Canada, London, 1892), where (pp. 45- 
70 )a Mxnewh.it extended sketch of the chief features ot the 
Kooten.tv language is given. 

At pages i7-i<> ot the same report the texts of seven songs 
are given. With the exception of the phrases accompanying 
some (it the vocabularies, the above, together with the Pater 
Noster ot I)e Smet, constitutes the whole literature in the 
Kootenay language that has vet been published. De Smet's 
version of the Lord's Prayer, entitled "Our Father in Flat bow 
and Kootenay Language," is contained on page 409 ol his 
"Oregon Mission and Travels over the Rocky Mountains in 
tS 15-4O iN. Y., 1X47.** This has been reprinted as follows: In 
De Smet's "Missions de TOregon, etc. (Gand, 1848), p. 356;'* 
J. ( 1. Shea's "History of the Catholic Missions among the Indian 
Tribe* ot the United States (X. Y., 1855), p. 473;** Mariettas 
"Oratio Dominica in CCL Linguas versa, etc. (Romae, 1870), 
p. 505 ;" Hancrolt's "Xative Races of the Pacific States ot North 
America" (X. Y., 1874-1876), Vol III, p. 620. 

The version ot De Smet is somewhat crude and in some places 
in the printed text hopelessly mixed in the interlinear transla- 
tion. The writer ot these notes is now engaged upon the study 
of this rendition, having in his possession a manuscript version 
by Father Coccolo, of the Koctenay Mission, obtained in 1891, 
which difFers remarkably in the wording from that of DeSmet. 
These are the only known translations of the Lord's prayer into 
this obscure western language. 

In the possession of the writer are also the texts of over fifty 
legends and myths recorded in phonetic transcription by him 



274 THE AMERICAN AK1TQUARIAN. 

(rom the dictation of the Indians themselves, besides an exten* 
sive word-list. The compilation of a Kootenav-English and 
English-Kootenay dictionary has been begun; the first sketch 
of the latter running about 3,000 words. From Mr. Pilling's 
" Proof Sheets of a Bibliography of the Languages ot the 
North American Indians (Washington, 1885)," the following 
manuscript vocabularies are known to be in existence: 

1. Mac Donald, Angus. Vocabulary of the Kootenay. Ms. 
611. fol., 200 words in Library of the Bureau of Ethnology, 
Washington, D. C. Date (?). 

2. Powell, J. W. (Supt. Indian aflairs, B. C\). Vocabulary 
of the Kootenay. Ms. 211. fol., 185 words. In Library of the 
Bureau of Ethnology. Date (?). 

3. Tolmie, Dr. W. F. Vocabulary of the Cootonais or 
Cuttoonasha Language. Ms. II. fol. In Library of the Bureau 
of Ethnology. Date (?). 

4. Vocabularie des Kootenays Counarrha ou Skalza Recue- 
illi par 11. r. p. * * * Missionaire Oblat de Marie Im. an 
milieu de trop d'occupations pour qu'il soit satisfaisant. "Man- 
uscript on printed 6 form, dated Le 15, Janvier 1883, *'• ^°'- ^ n 
the Library of M. Alph. Pinart, San "Francisco, Cal. w 

5. (Vocabularies ot some ol the Inoian Tribes of Northwest 
America.) Ms. 2 vols., 82 pp. folio. (Presented to Peter S. 
Du Ponceau, Esq, with J. K. Townshencl's respects.) Fort 
Vancouver, Columbia River, September, 1835. Among them 
is a list of ''Kootenai near the sources of the Columbia, 206 
words." 

6. In the possession of the writer of these notes is: Michael 
Phillips (Kootenay Vocabulary). Ms. 2 pp. foolscap, written 
down in Julv, ifyi, at Ft. Steele, B. C. Contains about forty 
words and phrases. 

This sketch >hows the state of our knowledge regarding this 
interesting American language. The printed literature is verv 
small, and the amount in manuscripts also small when we con* 
wider the large number ol manuscript in some other of the 
American aboriginal tongues. L'p to 1889, it may be fairly said, 
the scientific world knew nothing of the grammatical structure 
ol this linguistic lamily, and to-day it knows very little. The 
study ol the Kootenay language promises to add not a li'tle to 
the store-hnii*es ot comparative philology. 
Clark l"niversi:V| Worcester, Mass. 



TRANSFORMATION MYTH*. 275 



TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. 

By Stkpiikn I). Pket. 

It was a .strange conception among nearly all of the North 
American tribes that there were no lines which could keep apart 
the natural and the supernatural, the human and the divine, for 
all things were blended together in a shadowy way, and were 
easily transformed, as if seen in a dream. As in looking into 
the fog which sweeps into the shore, the divisions between the 
sky and sea and solid land arc dimly blended and obscure, and 
even those objects which have a definite shape seem to be mon- 
strous in their size, and fill one with awe because of their strange 
appearance, so to the eye of superstition there was no separation 
between the different realms of creation, no distance between the 
divine and human beings, but all were mingled together in one 
common realm, the superstition of the people doing away with the 
distinction between the substance and shadow, form and spirit, the 
feeling of awe and the sense of worship being aroused by every- 
thing that was strange or that excited their wondei. The divini- 
ty s i-mld 4>sumc the shajx; of animals or birds and nondescript 
creatures, and ap|>car in any of the elements — the earth, air and 
water They were all equivalent to the nature powers, and em- 
bodied in their strange forms the different forces of the sky. 
They could assume the human form and make that the highest 
manifestation of their presence. They were always supernatural, 
but made the natural objects subject to their power and so made 
their presence known. Stars came to earth and dwelt among 
men, men and women were changed to stars and dwelt in the 
skies, serpents came out of the water and married women; 
women changed to serpents and followed their lovers into the 
water . birds swept down the mountains and across the lakes, 
ami changed to feathered serpents; serpents were carried up to 
the clouds and shot as lightning from the skies; great monsters 
ap|>eared upon the earth and devoured men for food, but the 
monsters became stones and their bones were seen upon the 
shore ; forests changed to shadows and through them invisible 
spirits made their way. Such was the power of transformation 
that even the spirit world became as substantial as the material, 
the material itself became ethereal, which was constantly sug- 
gesting th' ^esencc of the divinities. The mythology of the 
aborigines was full of these strange stories of transformation, and 
owes its beauty in part to the fact that it had to do with the 
realms of the spirit. There was all the play of fancy which is 
possible to poetry, and all the charm that is contained in the fairy 



J76 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

stories, but the thought was controlled by the spirit of devotion 
and the myths were ot a dreamy and shadowy character, and 
have a peculiar charm which is found no where else in literature. 
Now it is to this transformation clement in the myths and 
symbols that we arc to call attention, for this is the clue by 
which we arc to interpret the various figures which arc brought 
before us. and especially those which represent the human form 
in combination with the various parts of birds and beasts and 
other creatures. These figures may well be studied, for they 
contain within themselves many of the myths which were preva- 
lent in prehistoric times, and so may be regarded as " myth- 
bearers" to the historic days. They are to be compared with 
the marked figures which are recognized in the various dances, 
for they probably represent the same conceptions, namely, that 
human beings could be 
easily changed into ani- 
mals and birds and that 
the totems of the clans 
could thus be brought 
near, and the divinities 
appeased and theprayers 
be granted, the drama- 
tisation of the prayers 
being perhaps embodied 
in the figures as well as 
in the dances, the relics 
thus serving the same 
puqwse as the "sand- 
paintings" and the carved 
columns the transforma- 
tion element being con- 
tained in all alike. 

We have spoken of a 
few of these, but have 
#V L-fcpt- ««i »--«» r»~ confined ourselves to the 

winged figures and to the human images which were inscribed 
upon copper plates and shell gorgets taken from the mounds, but 
there are many other specimens scattered over the different parts 
of the continent, and many means ol representing them. These 
may atl be called "mythologic creatures," for they embody the 
myths of the prehistoric races, but they need to be studied with 
this thought in mind, tor they are so varied and contain so many 
strange conceptions that were it not for the transformation cle- 
ment we should be utterly baffled in our eflort to interpret their 
meaning or to understand their object. We shall therefore call 
attention to the transformation cult as it is presented in the 
various localities, and to the different figures in which it is man- 
ifested throughout the land. The following may be taken as a 




TBsJfSfOBlUTIOV MYTHS. 



m 



list of the objects which hive perpetuated the cult and which 
have been chosen as the means of repr es enting; it to the eye : 
(i) Figures seen in the rock inscriptions; (2) effigy mounds; (3) 
carved posts; (4) masks and helmets used in dances; (5) painted 
figures and personal decoration* and the attitude of dancers; 
(6) the images which were used in religious ceremonials; (7) the 
figures inscribed upon the shell or copper plates, stone tablets, 
carved ppes and pottery vessels found in the mounds; (8) the 
figures which were painted or carved upon the houses; (9) the 
figures which were wrought in stucco and placed in the shrines; 
(10) carved stone figures, made to ornament the facades of the 
palaces; (11) statues in stone and wood, nude to repr esen t 
the sun divinities; (12) the figures which are portrayed by the 
codices and ancient calendars of the civilised tribes. It will be 
noticed that the figures are numerous 
and widely scattered. Such is the 
variety and distribution of these va- 
rious figures that we are constantly 
reminded of the great store of myth- 
ology which was formerly prevalent, 
but which is passing sway. These 
"mythologic creatures" often baffle in- 
terpretation and are very mysterious. 
and the symbols which contain them 
arc often difficult to understand. Yet 
the more we study the mythologies 
of the people and compare these with I 
the figures which come before the eye, y 
the better are we able to identify the 
myths in the symbols and the more I 
meaning do we find — that which was 
a scaled book becomes eloquent with 
a hidden sense, and beauties which 
were unobserved are brought before us to awaken our admira- 
tion and surprise.* The best aid, how e ve r , to the interpret a tion 
of the mythologic creatures is the one which is furnished by the 
so-called "transformation myths." We shall therefo r e refer to 
these, taking the pictographs and the myths as the double key, 
or rather as the lock and key, by which we may open the door 
to the inner chamber of the various religious systems. 

1. Let us consider the transformation of the creator into animals. 
This was a common supers ti tion among the partially civilised. 

•Om nl lb* B»*l Inpatuil 4 

Stbiuw bi utTstiiijTiiicii a 




LS 



27H 



THE AMERICAN" ANTIQUARIAN. 



tribes. The idea of the Creator with them was that he was a 
"transformer" or "changer." He was called "the master of life," 
"the holder of the heavens," "the old man of the ancients," "the 
god of beasts and men," and was regarded as a person having 
supernatural power, but was pictured as an animal or bird, though 
endowed with human attributes. The animal varied according 
to the locality. Among the eastern tribes it was the rabbit; 
among the tribes on the Pacific coast it was the coyote; among 
the tribes of the interior, the Moquis, it was the mountain lion 
or bear; among the tribes on the gulf const, the eagle; in the 
southwest, among the civilized tribes, the tiger and the feather- 
headed serpent that represented the creator and the culture hero. 
The divinity, however, rarely retained any ani- 
mal semblance long at a time, for he was con- 
stantly changing into other animals and into 
the human form, and at times was without 
form except as the elements, such as the 
lightning, the clouds, the rain obeyed his bc- 
hfis and became the sign of his power. The 
myths abound with stories of his adventures 
and he always conies before us as a person 
having human frailties and resembles Zeus, 
the chief god of the Greeks, in this respect. 
He was unlike Zeus, however, in that he could 
i leave his Olympus and his position as the 
L "chief of gods and men" and become an ani- 
f mal and act like other animals — proving t<> be 
he "god of beasts as well as men." 
The j lower of transforming himself into 
tw. .1 -M>-i/r-«» Mr any object of nature was alio enjoyed by 
'" """"■ each one of the culture heroes and creators 
To illustrate, let us take the stories of Glooskap. the chief god 
of the Abcnakis. He was able to transform everything at his 
will. One story is that there were stone giants; these were 
ravenous cannibal*, hut they were changed to stones, which can lie 
seen in various places. An army of these giant* ran across the 
river at Niagara, just below the falls, but they were changed to 
stone", which are still to be seen. The story is told of the great 
magician, called Kitpoosegenow, that he changed the rocks on 
the sea coa.it into canoes and the smaller rocks into paddles and 
a long splinter, taken from a ledge, into a s|>car. He changed a 
man into a pmc tree, which became exceedingly tall, so that his 
head rose above the forest. Onewhocntcrs apinc forest and listens 
may hear the tree murmuring all day long. He took the great 
bird called the " « md-blower," — " 11'tnvfowsfi" — who lived Ur 
to the north and sits upon a great rock and makes the wind by 
the moving of its wings, tied both his wings and threw him into 
a chasm, and there was a dead calm for many weeks. He after- 




TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. JTO 

ward loosened one of his wings and then the winds blew but as 
if with a broken wing. Glooskap had two dogs which barked 
.it night and filled the forest with their echoes. One was the 
coyote and the other the loon, the voices of both these creatures 
being very weird and ghost-like. 

The Iroquois also have many myths about their "master of 
life" or "holder of heaven," who is called loskeha and who re- 
sembled Glooskap, the Abenaki god. He was pictured as a giant 
rabbit, but was a great magician and a wondeiful "transformer."* 
He was able to change himself into any animal and could change 
other animals into new. One of his greatest adventures was 
that he caught the mischicvious sprite Pauppukeewis, who eluded 
him by jumping from continent to continent, and changed him 
into a war eagle. lie overcame also the "prince of the serpents," 
and finally himself became the great lawgiver Hiawatha. They 
hold also that Hiawatha himself was changed. After terminate 
ing his mission upon the earth he took his magic canoe and 
sailed away to the skies. A modern story is that the Atotarho, 
the enemy of 1 fiawatha, was changed from a horrid monster into 
a quiet man by a series of prayers. 

There arc many stories of the transformation of culture heroes 
and divinities into serpents. We 
have clswherc told the story of 
Maniho/ho, the Algonkin di- 
vinity, and have given a cut to 
illustrate it — the cut of the pipe 
with the tree and serpent and 
human face.* There is a legend 
• >f the transformation of the great ** ; ~ UmUm ° aT, ' v - 

creator into a serpent still extant among the Hopis or Moquis. 
The figure given herewith (see Fig. i) is that ol a water pitcher 
<>r fooler from Peru. It represents a serpent and human face 
combined, and reminds us of the idols which were so common 
in i iujtemala. No tradition is connected with it, and yet it may 
represent the same superstition 

The myths of the northwest coastf among the tribes of the 
KUmaths. Thlinkeets, Haidahs, illustrate this superstition very 
clearly. Among the Klamaths the creator of the world is 
(Kmukatiitcli) the "old man of the ancients," the "primeval old 
man." equivalent to old man above, or the chief in the skies of 
California, lie was as great a deceiver and trickster as Gloos- 
k.tp «,is. lie is the culture hero of his people. He did not 
m.ikc the world by one act. but made the lakes, islands, prairies 
an.l mountains, one after the other, and gave a name to each. 
Ik- ..rated the rocks shaped like a crescent, because the sun 



Set tin KUmatb 




280 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and moon once lived there. He was changed into a rock, which 
stands in the Williamson River. He travels in the path of the 
sun till he reaches the zenith, where he builds a palace and lives 
there with his daughter. The second in importance is the son ol 
the creator, called Aishish, who has great personal beauty. He 
is the genius of the morning star, or the rainbow, or the moon, 
and personifies the atmospheric changes. The moon is his 
campfirc. The moon, seen through the pine trees, is the shadow 
of the famished Aishish. As the moon brings the months and 
the seasons, so the quadrupeds and birds which appear after the 
long winter months are considered his wives, and the flowers of 
summer vegetation are the beads of his garments. He is called 
the time measurer, the one that tells the time. As the revolutions 
of the moon bring the weeks and months, so the measuring of 
time was ascribed to Aishish, the moon god. The elementary 
deities arc mysterious shadowy beings. The thunders are five 
brothers, the interior of whose lodge is dark, as the sky obscured 
by a thunder-storm, but their terrible weapon is the lightning, or 
thunderbolt. They are five, because the thunder rolls along the 
mountains in repeated |>eals. 

2. The power of transforming other creatures was sometimes 
delegated to the medicine men and individuals. Among the wild 
tribes this power became almost equivalent to magic, and gave 
great influence to the sorcerers, for the su|>crstition was that they 
had control over the elements and were in constant communica- 
tion with the supernatural. We can hardly appreciate this 
influence unless we take into the account this element of trans- 
formation. The barriers between the ghost world and the spirit 
of man were so broken down that suj>erstition of the people was 
easily played upon, and they were made to believe that sujxrr- 
natural Icings were actuallv present. Kven among the more 
cultivated tribes there was a dramatization of the nature ]>o*'ers 
under the semblance of serpents and other figures, the transforma- 
tion of the elements into animal forms being in the hands of the 
priests. The sand paintings owed their magic power in curing 
the sick to this thought. When the colors of the sky were used 
the sky spirits or sky divinities were actually present. The 
tracking of the disease into the various parts of the body and 
using the power of magic in the presence of the sky divinities 
was sufficient to effect marvelous cures in many cases. The 
superstition about the soul Uing able to pass through the 
mountains and into the rocks and to change its form, to leave 
the body and to take it up again, was also owing to the "trans- 
formation" elements, which so ruled the fancies of the people 
who dwelt among the mountains. 

We may say of all these different kinds of transformation, that 
they were based ujxjn the thought that the human was the 
highest form of being, yet the human must become animal in 



TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. 281 

order to hold communion with the divine. This was the case, 
especially where totcmism prevailed.* 

This power of transformation also came upon individuals on 
special occasions, especially in ceremonial dances. It was a gift 
enjoyed by a few favored individuals in their childhooJ. These 
were looked upon with peculiar awe, as if they were great 
manitous. An excellent illustration of thirmay be found in the 
account which has already been given of the dance seen by Cat- 
lin, called the buffalo dance, t This dance preceded the initiation 
of warriors, and was very suggestive of the transformation ele- 
ment. Kxamination of the plates will show this. In them it 
will l>e seen that the dancers wore the horns and skins of bufTalos, 
but various |>ersons have the forms of bears and antelopes and 
of bu/zards or vultures. These surround the "medicine lodge," 
while others, with their bodies painted to represent the day and 
the ni^ht, apjiear among the dancers, all the animal gods and 
the sky gods being |>cr sonified, and the myth of the creation and 
the flood being dramatized in the dance. J 

We have the testimony on this point of Professor William- 
son, a son of a missionary among the Dakotas, who often 
witnessed in his boyhood the dance called the medicine dance. 
He s.iys: "The celebrated ghost dance, so-called, of thcDakotas 
of the Tine Ridge agency |>crpetuatcs one of its old forms — 
.in old ei.i/e under a new name. In my boyhood I often wit- 
nessed this dame, usually called the medicine dance, although 
in particular forms it was called the sun dance. The ghost is 
oniv another name for the latter form. The dance I best remem- 
her was held in Kaposia, (South St. Paul), about the summer of 
i s 4«) Its chuf object was the initiation of new members into a 
secret siuuty, the Waukau order, into which only favored indi- 
\ i.!.;a!s were admitted. Members came from many other bands. 
They stated that, in some of these dances, the dancers actually 
!"camr, tor the time, by transmigration of souls, the very ani- 
mals they worshiped, ami involuntarily and necessarily they 
:m:tat< d them; they acted not as men, but as these animals, while 
und«T the sjic'.l. The buffalo and deer ate grass, panthers, wolves, 
bears and foxes raced and quarreled over the small animals and 
fishes brought into the enclosure for the purpose, tearing them 
with th-ir teeth, and eating them raw. At another time some 
malignant spirit, it was supposed, took possession of the one to 



•«»*■ ; «-« l ' it, ! « \.^ >m n l.rtfrn.tt. Muuiat In-i.an I.egrndt. by Ke» S I . Kand. 

■s, ■ ( ; »e? :. s>, , ■ %n j, nj | 

:■ .« a irv r :•«-! 4 aqic •! the Maodant called the l*ar Jan. t- nh.ch mat in 

■'■• 's 4 :-.. it .-.»! :. ! .4 i lavn He «at«. "Many :n the dan e wore ma«k« in their 
tj - * ■: 4 *.' '. i: • » :.s tr :i; t?.r \*r»t \ heal, and all with the mot. iq of theif hand ^ ci »*cly 

' «•■ «J t . i .it rr.i* t tf.r an :ua . % twr reprrtrntinff, .1* rn<»t.<in :n runn:(if. <<itne lit 

;- ■«' !.*..- *r» :• *rit; Q* 1 t« pant when it wm titt^njr. up-fi it* h rul part aod look* 

■■* ' ' r t f .*; ; r i I. f *o riir a r\ I he w:ne »«< trur a.» » >•! the buffalo -lance lor In 

•■ ■ • ■• «-•« * rr ivr irji * an 1 ?. rn* I the t»urt*l » and aUo invtated the m<»ti >ot of th« 

"* » '• \ *ri. ' -.ntc-1 li.e « .men :n tmth t!e*e i>:n :n a f»eiu!:ar Sung to the 

■'-■ ? ". • * l .«•■■«• iii«u.tcl and . >n<:;'. atc<! Wf >re«ULce«t can befaiaed. 



282 THE AMERICAN ANMQUARUX. 

be initiated, and he must be exorcised and destroyed, so the 
dancers, with guns and bows and arrows, were ready to shoot 
the evil spirit as soon as the signal was given. Whatever the 
object of worship, whether animal or bird, tree or stone, they 
were always careful to state that it was not the object itself, but 
the Waukau, the god that was accustomed to haunt the object, 
which they worshipped. In some cases the soul of a departed 
ancestor had entered into the animal, and they worshiped that. 
They stated that the gods not only haunted the animals, but in 
an especial manner were present in the pictographs and images 
which represented the animals and which were used in the 
dances. They also spoke of particular localities in which they 
fancied a natural resemblance to some object, either animal or 
other form, and therefore in an especial sense the seat of the god 
or spirit of that animal. If the god could dwell in a little picto- 
graph, how much more potently might he be expected to present 
himself in an immense effigy. In the days of the full sway of 
superstition not only the members o! the Waukau society, but the 
whole people were under the domination of the leaders, ready 
to do anything that might be demanded, and all that was neces- 
sary was for some leader of the Waukau to command the people 
to build the effigies and they were sure to be erected." 

3. The superstition that the divinity was transformed into various 
objects in nature, making them "myth-bearers/' was common. 
Many illustrations of this have become familiar to the author 
from frequent observation of the effigy mounds. It was the cus- 
tom of the native tribes throughout the Mississippi valley to erect 
effigies of various animals, especially serpents, upon the cliffs 
and hill-tops, with the purpose ol bringing out the resemblance 
which had been recognized in the shape of the hill. In this way 
the hill was transformed into an animal effigy and it was shown 
that the spirit ol the animal actually haunted the- hill. This, how- 
ever, was the same superstition which recognized the shafie of 
the animals in the rocks and rivers and trees, and which affixed 
a myth to these objects to account for the resemblance The 
work of art in the case of the effigies, the rock inscriptions, and 
the standing stones, was only designed to bring out the thought 
the more clearly, but the eye of superstition was always ready to 
recognize the resemblance. Van mis authors have spoken of this. 

Col. (larriik Mallcry says: ''In many j*arts i»f the L'nstcd 
States and Canada rocks and large stones are found decorated 
with paint, whit h wrre regarded as |H»ssrs%ing su|>ernatural 
|K»wcr, \et not directly connected with any sjiccial (KTsonagc of 
Indian mythology. One such was seen by I-aSalle's party in 
V**} «»n the l>etrmt River All the Indians <»f the region be- 
lie veil that th«- mck image wmild give safety in the passage ol 
the lake " llcVv savs that in Nova Scot* a there is a class of 
incised figure* illustrating the le'.igimiN irv'h-* an! fo'klore of 



TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. 283 

the Indian tribes. One of them indicates an episode of an ad- 
venture of Glooskap, the hero-god of the Abenakis. The story 
is that the fox, who was Glooskap's friend, through his magic 
power heard the song of Glooskap miles away, beyond forests 
and mountains, and came to his rescue. Another pictograph 
refers to the story of Atosis, the snake, who appeared out of the 
surface of a lake as a young hunter, with a large shining silver 
plate on his heart, covered with white brooches as thick as a fish 
ts covered with scales. This snake, which had such wonderful 
powers of transformation, married an Indian girl and took her 
to dwell with him beneath the lake. There is a variation of the 
same story among the Iroquois, but this time it is the wife which 
appears above the water. The story runs that a young hunter 
was seeking for his friend who had been lost. He met eight 
chiefs, who wore white plumes on their heads and who dwelt in 
eight tents by the side of the 









"•'.; 




F\y. i— t'iyurr* \n n i\%%« \n H rat 1'irr/inia. 



lakes. These chiefs called up 
the snake-woman. The lake 
boiled, great waves rolled upon 
the shore, and the serpent's 
wife came out of the water, 
shining like silver and very 
beautiful, her long hair hang- 
ing around her as if it had 
been gold. The snake woman 
dio.ip|K'arcd, and then the 
chiefs swept in the form of a 
white cloud across the water. It was the cloud in the lake and 
not in the sky. Thus the conception of the natives transformed 
the objects of nature into living beings, and invented beautiful 
myths to account for them. The pictographs are oftentimes 
nothing more than the mnemonic reminders of the myths. 

In West Virginia there are rock sculptures in which arc ser- 
pents, death- heads, animal figures, birds, human hands and various 
other designs, undoubtedly designed to represent the animals 
which were subject to the power of the medicine men. These 
inscriptions are on the walls of a shelter cave, which was proba- 
blv once used as a shrine or medicine lodge. They show the 
communion which the medicine men had with the different 
species «if animals and the superstition felt towards the pictures 
or figures of these animals wherever seen The fabulous crea- 
ture called the Piasa, which was seen by Marquette on the rocks 
near Alton, Illinois; was another of these myth-bearers, which 
embodied in themselves the element of transformation, the very 
fc -r. tr*M|uencss of the figure and the variety of its parts, the horns 
«-r the deer, the head of the tiger, the scales of the fish, the feet 
• f the panther, the tail of the wildcat, showing the shapes which 
this caliban might assume. Many such creatures rmy be seen 



284 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

upon the rocks, but they only perpetuate the myths which have 
prevailed. The Dakotas were remarkable for their manner of 
representing their divinities under animal forms. They picture 
the ancestors of the Hanga as a giant buffalo moving under the 
water. They also picture the chief god as a thunder bird resting 
on the rocks. The anti-natural god they picture as a man car- 
rying a bow in his hands. Mrs. Eastman has given a drawing 
of this. In this the giant is seen using the frog tor an arrow 
point. He is surrounded with lightnings. He has different 
animals, the bear, deer, elk, buffalo; also meteors. His court, 
or house, is ornamented with down. He has a whistle and rattle, 
bow and arrow, and other objects in his hand*.* 

There are many other illustrations of this jieculiar superstition 
that the spirit of the Divinity was transferred to the images which 
are presented in the different localities. This sii|>erstition was 
not confined to the figures of animals, but was aKo attached to 
every object which resembled the human form, and was espe- 
cially strong toward those objects which contained the human 
and the animal semblance in combination. This will explain 
the existence of the idol called the bear idol. In this the bear's 
head and >kin covers the human face and firm, but the mask 
in the shape of the hum. in face hanging in front is a |>eculiar 
sign of the transformation process. It also explains the meaning 
of the various figures of birds, with human heads and animal 
claws, which are m> common on the northwest coast, as well as 
those remarkable idols in Guatemala, in which human forms are 
covered with massive and gigantic tigers 

In fact, it is to this idea of transformation which explains 
nearly all the nondescript creatures which have been seen in the 
various parts of the continent, and winch makes them so sug- 
gestive and significant of* the divinities which were worshijx-d. 

Si honlrralt, (,'atlin and others have spoken ot the animal 
figuies which are depicted in the Mida son.;s .m,* charts, to which 
jRCiiliar significance was given. They have also described the 
transformation, which was supposed to take place in tiie various 
dances anil dramatizations. Hut it is to later writers, such as 
Mr. Walter Fcwke*. Mr. I*' rank dishing, and I)rs. Ilnnton and 
Mathews, th.it we are indebted for a knowledge of the deej>cr 
significance which was given to many of them, and especially to 
the occultic and divinatory |K>wcr. 

There were several classes of animal figures in which the 
transformation element was contained, some of them !>cing 
totem ic. »it hers mvthologic, others fctichistic, others occultic or 
dmnatorv, and still others largely anthropomorphic. The class 
to winch they belonged is made known by the prej>ondcrance of 
one or another clement, the totcmic prevailing mainly in the 



•*srr • f 4; !»-r u |V:- it*! I> » n.l.n. y ; * «■ V 



TRANSFORMATION MYTH 8. 285 

hunter tribes of the east, the mythologic among the fishing tribes 
of the northwest coast, the fetichistic among the village tribes of 
the interior, the anthropomorphic among the civilized tribes of 
the southwest, and the divinatory especially among the ancient 
Maya race. Diflerent classes are lound in each locality, but one 
class predominates in one region and another in another, so that 
we arc never at a loss to decide as to the form which the myth- 
ology has assumed, or to understand the peculiar significance 
which the figures may possess. 

Wc have given charts and cuts taken from the works of 
various authors to illustrate these different symbols, but have not 
undertaken to describe them all. Yet the reader can easily dis- 
tinguish between them and readily recognize the peculiarities 
of each cult from the various representations of it which are thus 
offered, the totemic always being the simpler figure, but the 
mythologic and occultic being the more complicated and con- 
ventional. 

4. The transformation of the nature powers into birds and of 
birds into human beings, who were warriors and heroes, was 
also common. There was a reason for using the bird as a sym- 
bol of the nature j>oweis and for making it a myth-bearer, for 
it was very suggestive in its habits and shape of the sky divini- 
ties, and so was likely to be taken as a representative of the 
thunder cloud, and the personal divinity who made the thunder. 
Various authors have noticed this. 

Dr. Hrinton says: "Hcyond all others, two subdivisions of 
the animal kingdom have so riveted the attention of men by their 
unusual powers, and enter so frequently into the myths of every 
nation o\ the glot>e, that a right understanding of their symbolic 
value is an essential preliminary* to a discussion of the divine 
legends. There arc the bird and the serpent. We shall not go 
amis* if we seek the reasons of their pre-eminence in the facility 
with which their peculiarities offered sensuous images under 
which to carry the idea of divinity, ever present in the soul of 
man, ever striving at articulate expression. The bird has the 
incomprehensible |x>wer of flight, it floats in the atmosphere, it 
rides on the winds, it soars toward heaven, where dwell the gods; 
its plumage is stained with the hues of the rainbow and the sun- 
set; its >ong was man's first hint of music; it spurns the clods 
that impede his footsteps and flies proudly over the mountains 
and moors where he toils wearily along. He sees no more 
enviable creation; he conceives the gods and angels must also 
have wings, and pleases himself with the fancy that he, too, some 
day will .shake orl this coil of clay and rise on pinions to the 
heavenly mansions. All living beings, say the Eskimos, have 
the faculty of the soul, but especially birds. As messengers 
from the upper world and interpreters of its decrees, the flight 
and the note of the birds have ever been anxiously observed as 



380 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

omens of grave import. In Peru and in Mexico there was a 
College of Augurs, corresponding in purpose to the horuspices 
ol ancient Rome, who practiced no other means of divination 
than watching the course and professing to interpret the songs 
of fowls." 

"But the usual meaning of the bird as a symbol looks to a 
different analogy to that which appears in such familiar expres- 
sions as 'the wings of the wind,' 'the flying clouds.' Like the 
wind, the bird sweeps through the aerial spaces, sings in the 
forests, and rustles on its course; like the cloud, it floats in mid- 
air and casts its shadow on the earth; like the lightning, it darts 
from heaven to earth to strike its unsuspecting prey. Therefore 
the Algonkins say that birds always make the winds, that they 
create the water-spouts, 
and that the clouds are 
the spreading and agita- 
tion of their wings; the 
Navajocs, that at each 
cardinal point stands a 
white swan, who is the 
spirit ot the blasts which 
blow from its dwelling; 
ami the Dakotas, that in 
the west is the house of 
Wakinyan, the Flyers, 
the breezes that send the 
storms." 

"As the symbol of 
these august |K>wers, as 
the messengers of the 
gods, and as the embodiment of departed spirit-, im one will be 
surprised it they find the bird figure most prom ineptly in the 
myths ;if the red rate. Sometimes some particular species seem 
tn have been chosen as most befitting those dignified attitudes. 
The great American eagle is the bird beyond all others which is 
chosen to typify supreme control. Its feathers composed the 
war flag of the ('recks, and its images carved in wood, or its 
si 11 tic I skin surmounted their council lodges. None but an 
approved warrior dare wear it among the Cherokees, and the 
I '.ikotas allowed such an lv nor only to him who had tlr-t touched 
the corpse of the common foe. The Natchez and Arkansas seem 
to have paid it even religmui honor-, and to have installed it in 
their must %acrcd -lirinc; and very clearly it Aas not <m much 
(.■r ornament as for a mark of dignity and .1 recognized sign of 
woith that it- plumes were so highly praised.' " 

Tlu-i' remarks are very suggestive. and yet much more might 




TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. 



287 



be said about the bird as a "myth-bearer." It would seem that 
the aborigines were all very imaginative in their worship, and 
that they looked upon the powers of nature as if they were full 
of the activities of the supernatural beings, and so represented 
them under the figures of birds and other active creatures of the 
sky. There is no class of myths which is more expressive 
than the one which has regard to the bird, and none more widely 
distributed than this. The figure of the bird is, in (act, conven- 
tionalized and made to serve as a symbol in every part of the 
land — being drawn in the pictographs of the wild tribes of the 
north, inscribed upon the tablets and gorgets of the Mound- 
builders, painted upon the shields and ornaments of the Cliff- 
dwellers, carved into the stucco tablets of the civilized races and 
placed within their shrines as an object of adoration, and yet 
it always signifies the same thing, namely, the transformation of 
the .sky- god into a |>crsonality which has 
assumed the bird-like shape. Illustra- 
tions of this are abundant, in fact, too 
numerous to even mention, so we select 
from widely scattered regions. Among 
the Alaskans the thunder is caused bv 

• 

an immense bird, whose size darkens the 

heavens, whose b«>dv is a thunder cl<>ud. 

the (lapping of whose wings causes the 

thunder, and the bolts ol fire which it 

semis out of its mouth are the lightning 

Rev M. Kells savs: "The Twanas and 

some other northwest tribes invest the 

animal with a twofold character, human 

and bird-like. According to them the 

being is supposed to be a gigantic Indian 

named in the dialects of the various coast tribes, Klamaths, Thlin- 

keets and Tinnchs. He lives in the highest mountains, and his 

food consists of whales. When he wants food he puts on a great 

garment which is made of a bird's head, a pair of very large 

wings, and a feather covering his body, and around his waist he 

has the lightning fish, which slightly resembles the sea-horse. 

The animal has a head as sharp as a knife, and a red tongue, 

which makes the fire. He then flies forth, and when he sees a 

whale he darts the lightning fish into its body, which he then 

sci/es and carries to his home. Occasionally, however, he strikes 

a tree, and more seldom a man. 

The same thought of the thunder-bird prevails among the 
eastern tribes. According to Mr. J. Walter Fewkcs, there were, 
among the I'assamaquoddies, men who were able to pass through 
the rocks. They went to their wigwams and put on wings and 
took their bows and arrows and flew over the mountains to the 
.south. They could not get home because the bird Woochowsen 




«w> 



VSq. :.— Wfuro and Yell. 



288 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

blew so hard that they could make no progress against it This 
bird was the north wind, which Glooskap was said to have caught 
and tied. Thus the thunder-bird was here an Indian, as in the 
northwest coast. The lightning from him never strikes one of 
his kind.* The legend of the •'thundcrers" prevailed among the 
Hurons. The story is that a youth in the forest heard a murmur 
of voices behind him. He turned and saw three men clad in 
strange, cloud-like garments. "Who are you ?" he asked. They 
told him that they were the thunder, their mission was to keep the 
earth, in order to bring rain, destroy serpents. The great deity, 
Hamen diju, had given them authority to watch over the people 
to see that no harm came to them. They gave him a dress like 
that which they wore, a cloud-like robe, having wings on the 
shoulders, and told him how they were to be moved. They said, 
we will leave the cloud dress with you. Every spring, when we 
return, you can put it on and fly with us to be witness to what 
we do for the good of man. In the spring the thundcrers returned 
and he took the robe and flew with them in the clouds over the 
earth. This young man learned from his divine friends the 
secret, which he communicated to two persons in each tribe. 
From him came the power of making rain, which was trans- 
mitted. t 

The Pawnees hold that Tirawa is the great creator, who lives 
up in the sky. Attius lives upon the earth. The wild animals 
are the servants of Attius. They arc called Nahumac. They 
personify the various attributes of Attius, but have the power of 
changing from an animal's shajx: to that of man. The black 
and the white-headed eagle and the buzzard are the messengers 
of this Attius. The four cardinal points were respected by the 
Pawnees, and so they blow four smokes — first to Attius, then 
to the earth, and last of all to the cardinal points. They sacrifice 
to the thundcrer in the spring-time. J 

Among the Omahas there was a society which had a peculiar 
regalia. They cut.thcir hair so as to make it resemble the crow 
and trimmed it with crow-feathers ; they blackened their faces, 
ami on their backs had white sjx>t.s, to make them emblematic 
ot the thunder-clouds and their destructive power in their advance 
over the heavens. Kvcn so the warrior, as he approaches his 
enemy, deals his death-darts. 

The thunder bird among the Klamath Indians is the raven, 
but it was able to transform itself into many other animals. 
Gatschct says, the earth (Kaila) is regarded as a mysterious 
shadowy power, who deals out gifts to her children. Her eyes 
are lakes and ponds scattered over the green surface, her breasts 



• 1 Wa.trr hrtttr*' I -urn*, -t An er iti K '.k I -rr. \ . III. V.i n. p fi?. 
t \tt !;iri(*t:n4 rni;r4\ iirf l.\ < «t..n { .t.fei l?ic ia.n-:K«kcr • tan J: of up-tt the tmt. 
b>.« ti f.Aii -!. *u-1 «k itnjf -iii v.* .4* 

N*e II r«( 1U r, I -bit.*: I A in. an F ■'». <ic. V •; IV, N >. il. p f*» 
tSca Journal of A:uer.:u» K l'.l.tt*. V ,'. VI. Nj. ii. 



TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. MB 

the hills and hillocks. The rivulets and brooks irrigate the 
valleys. Besides the earth there is the genius of the under 
world (Munatalkni) and the ghosts which represent the souls of 
animals and spirits of mountains, winds and celestial bodies. 
The common belief is that after death the soul travels the path 
of the sun to the west, there joins in the spirit land the in- 
numerable souls which have gone that way before. The shooting 
stars arc regarded as the spirits of the great chief whose heart 
can be seen going west, and the polar lights are supposed to 
represent the dance of the dead. The prairie wolf is the animal 
which represents the creator and culture hero of all the tribes of 
the northwest coast. His doleful, human-like cries heard during 
moonlight nights set him up in the esteem of the Indians. He 




fly. < —Bird, 9uh and Awua Slpin. 

apjicars in sun and moon stories as running a race with the 
clouds. He always attends another person, his shadow going by 
his side, and so is double; but the raven is the chief subject of 
their mythology. • 

The Moquis also have pictographs ol a great bird on the rocks 
near their village. In this pictograph is the symbol of the lace 
of the sun, also the symbol of the dome of the sky with zigzag 
lightning, four heads of serpents and a frog. And another picto- 
traph of a mythologic bird with leathers like crest, eight small 
circles This is called Kuetuqui, the war bird. The god of the 
earth among the Moquis is a god of metamorphosis. He is the 
deity who controls growth. t 

Another good representation of the metamorphic thunder-bird 
is the one which is depicted on the shield of the priest of the 

■) o'Bil lAiHnHFiKt-^n. Vol. %. No. u. p. i*. 



290 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

bow. In this shield wc find the human form with the wings 
made from knife-bladcd feathers. The lightning serpent beneath 
his feet, the human rainbow spanning like an arch above his 
head, a bear on cither side.* The conventionalized terraced cap 
or mask with the feathers crowning the turrets or peaks also 
symbolizes the clouds and the sky and the thunder as does the 
bird itself. 

The thunder bird is also seen among the symbols of the ancient 
Mayas. Hero it is associated with the cross, which is a symbol 
of the wind, and has many ornaments attached to it, the idea of 
transformation being suggested by the bird being headless. 

The best illustration of the bird as undergoing transformation 
and carrying the semblance of a human being is the one which was 
seen by M. Mabel sculptured on the stones in Cosumala-huapa. 
See Fig. 8. Here the bird has the flaming 'sun on his breast, a 
human arm projecting from its side with claws instead of a hand. 
It seems to be a bird of the sky and of the earth and at the same 
time human. No explanation of this figure has been given, yet 
the probability is that it symbolized the transformation of the 
bird into the sun and of the sun into a human being, the sculptor 
retaining all the symbols, as the combination would the better 
express the thought. It was not a mere fancy that led to the 
drawing of a mythologic figure by a native artist, but, on the 
contrary, he was always controlled by a definite purpose and had 
in his mind the myth as it was told. His effort was to make 
the figure as graphic as possible. There came, at last, a conven- 
tionality in the manner of representing a myth, and so the figures 
which are found uj>on the various relics, such as the shell gorgets 
and copjxrr plates of the Mound- Builders, the shields of the 
Cliff- dwellers and the sculptures of the civilized nations, have 
all the force of a sacred record. They show the progress of 
thought as well as of artistic skill, but at the same time show 
that the same religious conception of transformation was retained 
through all the changes. 

5. The transformation of the divinity into trees was another 
superstition which prevailed extensively among the aborigines 
of America, specimens of the human tree being found in nearly 
all parts of the country. We may say that no symbol in Amer- 
ica is more interesting than is this, and none that more thor- 
oughly reminds us of the old world stories. These all may be 
mere coincidences, yet the analogies are certainly very striking 
anil the figures are the more worthy of close and candid study 
on this account. Wc would, therefore, call attention to the 
different specimens of human trees. The superstition about the 
tree spirit was very common in Kurojxrand was frequently sym- 
bolized by the early inhabitants, conveying the idea that there 

•In an tl.rr t g-.re we t.tst tl.e ritlr ».t?. i t vidffi fpffc*ti. two acrfwatt. Ifcen bc*4i 
t--«af>l tt.r.i « iirfv at. J a r.guir .1 aT-ear aLhjic the t«e*J «»l tl.e c«f* 







*4>--^ 



t~fS ) 




/ > 



•^ 



X 



*S 



r 



AW 1 









*^OK 




p 



L 





JCTNS 



ANIMAL TOTEMS OF THE HUNTER TRIBES. 



\m\h ] 



\>'C 



HUMAN TREE GEST TABLET. 



TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. »i 

was the same transformation myth there as here. The trans- 
formation myth also existed in Egypt, and was embodied in the 
story of Osiris and Isis and their various adventures, the spirit 
of life hidden in nature being personified in this way. We find 
also in Assyria and Chaldea that the tree of life or the sacred 
grove was set up in their temples, and priests were represented as 
presenting offerings to it as to a divinity. In fact, there is no 
land on cither continent where there are not stories concerning 
the tree, and very few places where there is not the same con- 
ception that the tree spirit was a divinity or a personal being. 

We have already spoken of the tree and star contained in the 
Dakota pictograph and its resemblance to the Scandinavian tree 
of life, Igdrasll. There arc relics, 
however, which suggest that the hu- 
man spirit was transformed into a tree, 
very much as the spirit of Osiris was 
buried in the pillar of the house of the 
king at Hiblos. The Gest tablet is an 
illustration of this. This is made up 
of a variety of symbols, among which 
we may recognize the face and form 
of a man, but hidden in the semblance 
of a tree, the branches of which form 
the legs and arms, the leaves form the 
feet ami hands, also the hair, nose 
and mouth, circles form the eye, the 
human face looking out from the net- 
work of leaves and branches as it 
sometimes docs in the modern picture 
puzzle. It reminds us of the sacred 
groves or trees which were common 
among the Chaldeans of the east 
Another tablet has also been discovered, which may perhaps 
embody the same conception, but in a modified form, for the 
lines upon the tablet seem to represent an animal head as hidden 
among the branches of the tree, instead of the human face, 
although the general form of the symbol is retained. 

These various tablets were taken from the mounds in the 
Ohio valley, and so suggest that the superstition about the tree 
spirits prevailed among that mysterious people. A similar fig- 
ure of a tree containing a human face is found in the tablet of 
the cross, at Palcnque, usually called "Malar's cross." The pecu- 
liarity of this cross is that its arms are made up of the long 
leaves of corn, each of which, according to the photograph taken 
by Charnay, contains a human face hidden away among the 
leaves. The standard of the cross is made up of a solid bar, 
which supports on its summit the consecrational form of the 
thunder-bird, but on the bar, at the junction of the arms, there 




h 7V«, PnUnqm. 



2M THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

is a face with a peculiar bulging eye, and below the face a neck- 
lace with a medallion suspended to it hangs against the standard.* 
Another peculiarity is that two human figures clad in priestly 
robes stand on cither side and present their offerings to the bird 
on its summit, exactly as they do in the two other tablets at 
Palenquc; the same symbols also cover the bird and the human 
form. This cross was, like all the others, contained in a shrine 
or temple, which was evidently devoted to the worship ot a chief 
divinity, and may properly be regarded as representing the god of 
agriculture of the Mayas. It will be noticed that on the facade 
arc two figures; on the head of one (the priest) there arc leaves. 








cones and water plants, and caglc-hcads, and that around his 
waist and between hi- legs a maxtli, or sash, in the form of a 
twisted feather- headed serpent, and that he has the usual bulging 
eye, the symbol of the god ol rain ; while the figure of the warrior 
on the other side, has on his head a crown »f fcatlurs. on which 
arc figures uf the stork, the frog and the fish, in his hand a staff 
made 01 waving orn leave* or vines. The study of these differ- 



TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. W3 

ent figures in the shrines of Palenquc, with their symbols, con- 
vinces us that the nature powers were all personified, but that 
their activities were interchangeable, the sun-god, the rain-god 
and the god of agriculture having symbols that were similar. 
This was common, however, among other nations, for in the 
Shmtoo religion the goddess of food was also the producer of 




Tht "Trn 9/ U/f and t^mbcU o/ Ut* Ov«uJ r*x*J*s 



trcts and the parent of grass, and in the Egyptian religion the 
chief g'Xla, lsis and Osiris, were but the personifications of the 
spir.t of life, and ever)' part of the story was suggestive of the 
ch.m^es of the seasons. 



Iicalt ■>■!:■■... o! Ilia umr IC1KC11 nriDCIpIra It Kill b* (althrr BUUC*J that the 

il i* i l.aiuT'i M*aB«n<ii*at l..r Ih*Hci>cu'cal«i'U>ar»uldl7on i Tuch- 
■ .1, : ;-,r. raiir.. • -nib i A(ail Can*, r«J, ■«t«, cut. j. TacMI— fliat jel- 

. i, lit. t I » ]-H .an. I tarn. fii*. north. Slill. CmnaUI. Darin. BotarlBU Tot- 
,. iliiii i V litira. Sthulti >od Stllick all hate dintiaet ■ 



294 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

There are many other specimens of the human tree. Among 
these we would place the remarkable figure which is seen on 
the facade of the palace at Uxmal. This has baffled explanation, 
though il is sometimes called a Manitou face. See Fig, to. May 
it not be a combination of the symbol of the sacred tree with 
the human face — the eyes and nose and ears, all of them blended 
with the branches of the tree, the idol, crowned with a nimbus, 
representing the divinity, its position in the house showing that 
it was a household god.* 




fill. Il.-M.il trtlH rtymWi "' l*r .Wy ifl ' lou.I. 

The best illustration of the use of the tree as a symbol of 
transformation is the one which is found in the codices of the 
ancient Maya and Nahua races. + These codices contain various 
symbols, the cross, the hlrd, the serpent, the tree, and the 
human h'gure, all of them arranged differently and having a 
different position or prominence, according as the intent was to 
emphasize one or the other symbol, the serpent being the most 
prominent in the Borgian codex, the serpent and bird in the 

•I»*v i fti . n > ,1 It* ptlm.t hue ihm I m> »..m. Hi so >n* hai Ihu l» «,m u| 



111, |. i. .nd<Mptn X 



t httJ at lh* M iprel iu>l >l lh* c> 



TRANSFORMATION MYTHS. 3H 

MSS. Troano, animals and birds in the Vatican, the circle in the 
wheel ot Duran, the cross in the Palenque tablets, and the tree 
in the shape of the cross, with a human figure attached, being 
very prominent in the Corteaian, the Vatican and the Fejevary 
codex. We begin with the Cortesian Codex. Fig. 1 1. This 
has been explained by Rosny, by Dr. Forschammer, Dr. Cyrus 
Thomas and others, and the following is the analysis of the 
different parts ol the chart. The picture presents four divisions: 
i . In the middle of which is a representation of the symbolic tree; 
beneath are the figures of two personages (male and female) 
seated on the ground and facing the Katunes, among which the 
symbol of day is repeated three times. 3. The 
central image is surrounded by a sort of frame 
or belt, in which are the twenty cyclic charac- 
ters ot the day calendar (day symbols). 3. In 
the four compartments, four groups, arranged 
according to the order of the cardinal points. 
Two of these figures have a flaming torch, or 
possibly an incense vase in their hands. Two 
others seem to be attending a sacrifice in which 
a human victim is offered on an altar; two Others 
are seated, in a temple (Calli), on which are the 
symbols ol a cross, and two others are facing a 
figure resembling a bound mummy, the signifi- 
cance of which is unknown, 4,. At the outside 
ot the picture are the rows of dots which run 
along the borders, also day characters, which are 
grouped together at the corners, making, per- 
haps, a record of the feasts, or a chart of certain 
ceremonies, or a calendar system of the year and 
the days-' 

As to the meaning of the tree in these codices F *aZ*'<£2!!»L U * 
and on the tablets, we i..ay say that it was the 
tree of lite as much to the Mayas and Nahuu as the ash-tree 
tlgdrasil) was to the Scandinavians, or the sacred grove (Ashur- 
rah'i was to the Babylonians, or the tree in the Garden ot Eden 
was to the Hebrews. As to its origin, there are great differ- 
ences of opinion, some supposing thai it was the mere outgrowth 
of the nature worship which prevailed, and others ascribing it 
to the result of a prehistoric contact with the eastern continent. 
It is remarkable, however, that the same symbols of the serpent 
and the human form are so intimately connected with it, and 
that the significance of the tree should be so similar. We are 




..'. . h on ,:.. If! .hi, j I hi wrtit nl ht* da), rich. The ten hleiof !jphlci la the com*ra 
• 1!. it.r ■'. ,ii .ten tf ih* •• iid »eai, which *«i mad* up ol iwmii maul ha ol thirteen 
•i)< tt. h. u i!-.rt* tie twtol) •Tmboli drnotUH thirteen dan. which equal ate dan. The 
►•!«"'l l«Jn li •uiMid aim ID tqa*i« and loofa, with loaf 1 Ian id Ih* Hum, Kith 
taeati l.:ei «.tal.i.i a the (Brain, nbltb, anta the dole between, aukc ate ae betofa. 



29H THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

to remember that there was an extensive calendar system and 
an elaborate system of divination connected with the tree, as 
with the circle and other symbols, the system ol occultism hav- 
ing prevailed as well as in the east, and even a similar resort 
to caves having been common. 

6. The transformation cult was also embodied in human fig- 
ures, especially those which are in combination with tree figures. 
In reference to the human figures in this chart, no explanation 
has been given, yet some of the old authors, such as Veytia and 
Gemelli and Gomara, have thrown out hints which help us to 
solve the problem. These authors speak ol the tour symbols, 
the flint, Tecpatl; the house, Calli; the 
rabbit, Tochtli; the reed, Acatl, and say 
these are allegories by which they set iorih 
the four elements which are understood to 
be the origin of all things, the torch sym- 
bolizing the fire; the house the element ol 
earth; the rabbit, or mummy bound, the 
air; the reed, water. It is to be noted 
that most of the old calendars were ar- 
ranged in squares or in circles to represent 
the cycles ol the days, years and months, 
and the lour divisions were the symbols of 
the lour seasons that made up the year. 
Having found an analogy between the sea- 
son* and the year, they would carry the 
similitude to the age ol titty-two yearn and 
as well as to the elements making the same 
symbols in their combination represent the 
divinities, Tochtli living dedicated to the 
gnil ol lire, Acatl to the god ol water, 
Ttcpall to the god ol air. and Calli to the 
god ot e >rlh. Thus the symbol ul the tree 
Uv.tmc the center ol a mass ol symbolism 
w liifh was very expressive ol the events ol 
!!»■ national history and id the lundaim ntal 
|« unts in their cosmognny and in their rc- 
i:ji >us systems. The same is also true 
ol the other codices, such as the Fejevary 
., and the Vatican. In these the tree i* re- 
jhmIciI lour times, each lime having a diller- 
icht-i ol the tree being loaded down with 
ililhreiit colors, the trunk being grasped hv 




Irui: 
a tin 



o-lor, the biai 
i and il ittcru n 



el ..ttlUlde. 



Iilirateil in Central America which had 
transformation ai their chief element. These were held in cav- 
ern-, or v.iblrrrani.in "temple-." The intimate meaning of the 
cave cu!l was the »■■ -rship *.■( the earth. The cave god, the heart 
of the hills, really typified the » 



irth, the soil from whose dark 



TRANSFORMATION MYTHH. 




recesses flow the limpid streams and spring the tender shoots o 
the lull plants as well as the great trees. The cave god was the 
patron of the third day, also lord of animals, the transformation 
into which was the test of his power. Tlaloc, god ot the moun- 
tains and the rains, was represented by the symbol ol a snake 
doubled and twisted on itself, carrying his 
medicine bag, his robe marked with the sign 
of the cross, to show that he was lord of 
the four winds and of life. 

In Southern Mexico and Central America 
the trees seen near the villages are regard- 
ed as the protecting genius of the town. 
Sacred trees were familiar to the old Mex- 
ican race. They arc said to have represented 
the gods of woods and waters. In the 
ancient mythology the tree of life is repre- 
sented by four branches, each sacred to one 
of the four cardinal points. The conven- 
tionalized form of this tree in the Mexican 
c figurative paintings resembles a cross. 

In Alaska, according to Niblack, the wind 
spirit, uho causes the changes in the weather, is represented by a 
figure winch has the ears of a bear and the face of a man. On the 
right ami lett are the feet, which symbolize the long streaming 
clouds. Above are the wings, and on each side arc the different 
winds, each designated by an eye, and by patches ot cirrus clouds. 
The r.un is indicated by the tears which spring from the eyes of 
Tkul. the wind spirit. The best illustration of these mythologic 
changes is the one given by the Haida myths. The story is that 
there was a war between the raven and 
the thunder-bird. In order to overcome 
the raven let all kinds of am 
t,. the whale, and they wen' 
to the land of the thunder-bird. When 
tin- bin! saw the whale, he sent out his 
yungest son to catch it, but he was un- 
able to lift it. He stuck to the gum that 
w.is un the whale, and the animals killed 
him. 

This same use of the human figure as 
a symbol i if the clouds and winds and 
sky is also illustrated by the idols which 
are common among the ancient I topi or 
Moju.s In these the feather is the »'■ " 'S^JS^" <M 
symbol of the cloud; the stripes on the 

face ami form are the symbols of the sky; the terraced head- 
dress i, aKu a symbol of the houses above the sky ; the arches 
mbols of the arches of the sky. See Fig. 13. 



enemy. 




are als< 



296 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

The same conception is also represented by the vase described 
by Dr. Hamy, Charnay and others, and by the idol described 
by M.Biart and several others. The vase was found by Char* 
nay at Tennepanco, and the idol at Oazaca, Mexico, and is now 
in the Trocadero Museum. Both represent Tlaloc, the god of 
rain, who was always accompanied by the god of air. This 
represents the rain god as furnished with eyes in the shape of 
sun circles; mouth lips and teeth in the shape of wind circles; 
the whole form containg the various symbols of the nature pow- 
ers. The?e two images as well as the figure on the facade of 
the palace illustrate the prevalence of the transformation cult 
among the ancient Mayas. See Fig. 15. 

The use of a winged human figure to represent the "trans- 
formation myth 9 ' is illustrated by the statue which Dr. Hamy 
has described as standing upon the summit of a pyramid at 
Uxmal. This is the statue of Queizacoatl, the air god or sun 
god of the ancient Mayas. He is generally represented as a 
white man, clothed in a garment decorated with crosses and 
wearing a beard. Here, however, his garments as they shake in 
the wind appear like wings, but are covered with crosses, which 
are also symbols of the wind as well as the cardinal points. At 
his feet is the figure of a feather-headed serpent, also having the 
shape of a wing. See Fig. 16. On his head are the tour plumes, 
which also represent the winds. The attitude of the god is very 
suggestive, as is the crook or start in his hand, but the human 
face and form are the most expressive of all, tor these show that 
he was a personal god as well as a representative of the various 
nature powers. 



PLANT FORMS ON MEXICAN TABLETS. 2W 



PLANT FORMS ON MEXICAN AND CENTRAL 

AMERICAN TABLETS. 

J. W. Harshbbrgbr. 

It is frequently very difficult to interpret symbolic forms on 
scnlptured stones which have been found isolated from buildings 
and structures, the archaeological significance of which is known 
by the internal evidence of their architectural design and con- 
struction (instance the cyclopean period ot Greek architecture), 
unless the monumental slabs bear inscriptions easily deciphered, 
as the Egyptian hieroglyphs, or the Babylonian cuneitorm 
characters. In the case of stone tablets, however, it is exceed- 
ingly perplexing to determine the historical position or myth- 
ological importance of the chiseled rocks, when the engraved 
signs are enigmatical. 

Frequently light is thrown on the history of a monument by 
studying the plant and animal forms cut thereon. In many 
cases, however, only conjectural interpretations can be given, 
for the figures are so conventionalized by the Indian artist, as 
to t>e unrecognizable, even to the practiced eye of a biologist. 
Native American artists seem to have been fond of symbolizing 

Slant and animal forms by conventionalization. > The early 
panish fathers and travelers made some wild guesses as to the 
meaning of Mexican and Central American carved designs, and 
they have been followed in their speculations by many set olars 
of repute at the present day. Goodyear speaks about the lotus; 
Charnay about the water lily; Bancroft, about the maize leaf, 
and others about pine cones; but no one has identified them lor 
a certainty. 

The writer, being a botanist, at the suggestion of Dr. Peet, 
examined the published figures of several slabs and monuments, 
notably, "The Palenque Tablet ol the Cross" and the porphy- 
ritic slabs found by Dr. S. Habel, in Guatemala, to determine, 
if possible, the plants figured thereon. The results of the in- 
spection are here given: The plant forms recognizable in the 
"Palenque Group of the Cross** are three in number, a leaf at 
the base of the cross, a flower pendant from the ear of the left 
hand human figure and a simple threc-lobed leaf to the right 
ot the upper part of the cross. The pendant flower resembles 
very closely in general outline a flower ot the tobacco Nicoiiana 
tabticum % which is long and tubular, with a monosepalous 
(gamosepalous) calyx, r lowers of tobacco were used bv the 
North American Indians in their rites and ceremonies. Haw- 
kins, in his account ol the Festival ol the Busk, records some 



300 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

interesting facta in this connection. He says: "Two men, 
appointed to that office, bring flowers of tobacco of a small 
kind (Imchau-chu-le-puc-pug-gee), or as the name imports, old 
man's tobacco, and put them in a pan on the wico's cabin," and 
in another place he says: "The cane is stuck up at the water's 
edge, and they all put a grain of old man's tobacco on their 
heads and in each ear." The leaf at the bottom of the cross 
resembles a tobacco leaf with the upper margins enlarged and 
turned over. The veining of the conventionalized leaf closely 
approximates that of the tobacco leaf, as the outline drawings 
upside down will show. 





The plant from which the three-lohed, sassafras-like leal was 
taken is not known. If other vegetal forms are pictured on this 
celebrated Cross Tabid, they are so changed by the stone- 
worker as to be unrecognizable. 

Tin- identification ijf the plants on the tablets from Santa 
Lucia Cosumal-htiapa, as givi-n by Dr. Mabel in Smithsonian 
Contributions to knowledge (Vol, XXII, 1S7S1, is difficult. 
Sculpture No. 2, Plate I, in .1 porphyrin ivulcanilei block twelve 
feet long, three leet wide and two feet thick. Only the upper 
part ol the sculpture concerns us. It represents the head, arms 
and breast of ,1 deity, apparently a personage ol advanced age, 
as indicated by the wrinkles on the lace. The winding staves 
twined over the head have not only nodes attached, but also 
variously shaped leaves, buds, tlowers and fruits, apparently, as 
Dr. I label suggests, the symbols of speech replacing our letters. 
Dr. Mabel, in describing the figures on this vulcanite slab, says: 
"As to the theological principle symbolized by this deity, I do 
not venture to express an opinion, it is only by deciphering the 
mandate represented by the winding staves above mentioned 
that we can arrive at a positive knowledge of his ithe deity's) 
true character." Examination ol the plants attached to the staves 



PLANT F0RM8 ON MEXICAN TABLETS. 



301 



shows flower*, fruits and leaves of various kinds, intermingled 
indiscriminately. In the middle left-hand side is an acorn, 
apparently. The flowers are so conventionalized that they can- 
not certainly be identified. The fruits, likewise, are so outlined 
as to be beyond recognition, except one which looks as if it might 
be the capsule ol a tobacco plant. This impression is strength- 
ened bv comparing the single fruit found to the left in Sculpture 
15 with the seecT vessel of tobacco. The drawings show a 
similarity, when the calyx of the tobacco flower is cut away 
in front. 





Statt (\tj>iulr. 



7^>barro OtfttuU. 



In Sculpture No. 5, Plate III, we see again the head, chest 
and arms of a deity represented, beneath which is a person 
adoring, as in Sculpture No. 2. "The ornaments of the head 
consist of staves winding in various directions, the bearers of 
the deity's mandates expressed in cipher language. From the 
neck emanate two staves btaring nodes, buds and other unknown 
figures. Attention is especially called to the disposition ol the 
two staves arising from the top of the head. After curving 
outward for a short distance, they are connected by an arched 
ridge, upon which, as a base, a triangle is erectcdytpd in the 
center of the inclosed space are two mysterious emLlel^^ Th* 
ridge forming the central triangle is prolonged so as toN^vide 
the entire upper part of the stone into five triangular sp«KCt» 
which are embellished by the leaves, buds and oth%- ornaments 
of the winding staves." I have been unable, after a careful 
examination, to settle the identity of any of the flowtrs, fruits or 
leave* figured on Dr. HabePs tablets, as they are too much 
changed in conventionalization. It seems likely, however, that 
here and there among the winding staves, bunches Of grapes 
are attached. 



302 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



AN OJIBWA CRADLE. 

By Harlan I. Smith. 

While visiting at the Ojibwa settlement, in the township ot 
St. Charles, eighteen miles southwest of Saginaw, as well as 
the one on "Poy-ga-ning" Creek, in the township ot Buena Vista, 
eight miles northeast ot the same place, it was found that the 
usual method at present ot cradling the child is in a hammock. 
This is constructed in a tew moments, and from material such 
as is usually at hand in the Ojibwa home. In general appear- 
ance, this hammock resembles the one trom Cape Breton, which 
is figured in " Cradles of the American Aborigines," by Prof. 
O. T. Mason, p. 169. Judging from that sketch, the details ot 
structure ditler somewhat from those ot the Ojibwa hammock 
of the vicinity mentioned, although possibly they originated 
with groups ot the same linguistic stock. 




An (htbwa CV<i«J/*.* 

To construct the hammock, two ropes are stretched between 
two points, which are trom tour to eight feet apart, in the habi- 
tation, or, in the summer season, from convenient trees or posts, 
near the summer shelter; then a shawl, blanket or similar 
fabric, such as is usually at hand wherever the little Ojibwa is 
present, is tolded to the length and about three times the width 
of the contemplated hammock; this is then passed below the 
two rope strands, in such a way that the extra two thirds of 
width can be folded in, one from each side, over the rope oo 
that sice, and extending about to the other rope, which has 
been held away trom the first a distance equal to the width of 
the hammock. This being done the two thirds overlie the 
center one third, and, together with it, form the three thick- 
nesses ot the cradle bottom. 



*I>f*wa Ly K Newt -u 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. SOS 

The weight of the child binds the ends and holds the fabric 
in place. In some cases, especially if the child be a heavy one, 
this completes the cradle; but usually two sticks, each a trifle 
shorter than the width of the hammock, are placed, one at each 
end, just below the rope, inside of the cradle. These serve, not 
only to further aid in nolding the fabric from slipping, but also 
to spread the ropes and tend to give to the cradle a rectangular 
shape. In case the child is heavy, it causes these sticks to tear 
through the fabric, and hence they cannot be used. The selec- 
tion of these cross-sticks is not at all particular, any convenient 
twig or stick being used. Bedding is placed in the hammock 
as is desired. Sometimes nothing is used below the winding 
in which the child is encased. In other instances this is supple* 
mented by placing bedding below it. A bent twig, or perhaps 
more often, a piece of one of the strips cut for baskets, is bent 
up and the ends placed down in the cradle, near the head, the 
pressure of the bow holding it in place; this serves to hold up 
from the child's face a net or other light fabric intended to pro- 
tect it from flies, mosquitoes, etc. I have never seen it used at 
th<>*e settlements as a support for objects of amusement for the 
child. 

The methods of carrying the young children upon the back, 
held in place by a shawl drawn tightly arouna the mother's 
shoulders, and the ways of bandaging them into a helpless 
bundle, with arms as well as legs held fast, must have a consid- 
erable eflect upon the physical development of the child. Often 
before the age of a week is attained, the winding is so close as 
to seem severe. Interesting as are these methods, a description 
of them at this time would be premature and must be deferred. 

Saginaw, E. S., Mich. 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. 

By Theodore F. Wright, U. S. Secretary. 

The work at Jerusalem has begun. After the finnan was 
obtained the governor of the city hastened the settlement of 
local matters, and Mr. Bliss set fifteen selected men to work. 
He begun at a point near the English cemetery, on the south- 
western part of Zion, and immediately struct a rock scarp 
which could be followed with the certainty that no time would 
be wasted. The first two weeks of his work are described, 
with a plan, in the July Statement. 

It is easily seen that Mr. Bliss may not be able to study at 
once all that he finds. His men work about twelve hours a 
day. He must constantly watch the results of their 



304 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



Thus coins and pottery and other instructive objects .ire laid 
aside as soon as found till there shall be time to clean and ex- 
amine them. If all goes well, Mr. Bliss will keep on as he has 
begun, tracing out the earliest fortifications and hoping to un- 
cover structures of David's day and later. 

While waiting for this permit he went down to the Jordan 
plain and looked at mounds like Tell-el-Hesy. He reports 
that, when the day for excavating in the vicinity of Jericho shall 
come, he believes that excellent results will follow. The Jordan 
valley will, of course, be deferred, but it is well to be in advance 
with plans. Not only Jericho, but the Cities of the Plain may 
yet display their foundations to this young American explorer, 
if he does not succumb to the climate. 

A discussion is going on as to the Jerusalem cross (a), which has 
been taken as the emblem of our Fund. Herr Conrad Schick, 
who is a very thorough student of such matters, gives a number 
of crosses somewhat similar, and concludes that this five-fold 
cross was borrowed by the Crusaders from the Armenians. He 
does not tell us where the Armenians got it. Major Cooder.on 
the other hand, believes it to have come to the Crusaders from 
local sources and sees a relation between it and the swastica. 



f 



-4 



1 



A. 



This raises the question as to the origin of the swastica (b). It is 
found in ancient Troy, it is the Indian Buddhist "wheel of the 
law," it has been discovered in Mexico and Peru, and visitors 
to the Exposition will remember the beautiful specimens of it 
in hammered copper taken from the Hopewell mound in Ohio 
and now preserved in the Columbian Museum. The evolution 
of the cross would be a good subject tor a young archaeologist 
to take up. 

Wry careful soundings have been made of the Sea ol Gali- 
lee, showing that it has a very clear bottom and is about 160 
feet deep in the center. 

A metal mouse, recalling the golden mice of I Samuel, vi, 
has been found and is discussed. It seems that our rat is from 
Central Asia and has spread all over the world. 

In view of our increasing work, new subscribers are cordially 
welcomed. 



THE STONE OP CANA. 



THE STONE OF CANA. 

[Keprtoud from The Sunday School T\mm. iW$.J 

To the list of monuments regarded with interest and venera- 
tion as connected with the life and miracles of our Lord, there 
seems now to be added another, through a discovery at Elatea 
by M. Paris, a student of the French Archaeological School here. 



ri° 



r^s 



M. Paris was making excavations with reference to the temple 
of Minerva, when he came upon the remains of a church of the 
Virgin, belonging evidently to the middle ages, and found a 
slab of grey marble veined with white, bearing this inscription, 
in Byzantine characters: "This is the stone from Cana of Galilee 
where our Lord Jesus Christ made the water into wine." The 
stone is 2.33 meters in length, 0.64 meters wide, and 0.33 meters 
high. The upper surface, one side and one end, are carefully 




Thr 9ton* of Oma, thawing the faliton o/ the Inscription. 

polished, while the under surface and remaining side and end 
are simply hewn, as if intended to be placed in a corner of a 
room. The inscription is on the larger polished lateral surface. 
not running from end to end, as might naturally be expected, but 
across the narrower way. The supposition is that this is the 
stone-couch upon which our Lord reclined at the marriage sup- 
per at Cana. The inscription alone would not justify the con- 
elusion ; but M. Ch. Diehl, in a long article devoted to 



306 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

subject in the Bulletin tic Correspondence Helleniquc % argues that 
the inscription was doubtless engraved upon it at the time of or 
subsequent to its removal from Cana, and was considered suffi- 
cient to designate the stone as the well-known object of venera- 
tion among the early Christians. 

Comparing the text of Antonin with the slab of Klatea, M. 
Dichl finds an inscription near the end, where the head and 
up [xt part of the body might reline, the translation of which he 
makes out to be this: "Remember, Lord, my father and my 
mother. Antonios." And he infers that it is highly probable 
that the Antonios of this inscription is no other than the Antonin 
de Plaisance. "Thanks/' says Diehl, "to an insignificant detail 
mentioned by a pilgrim of the sixth century, the famous stone 
of Cana has already an assured origin and history." 



EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES. 

By William Copley Wixslow, D. D. 

With the spades at rest and the diggers on vacation summer 
notes are necessarily short and unnewsy. 

Dr. Flinders Petrie writes thus anent the "Egyptian Research 
Account," as he names his project: "You will see by the en- 
closed that I am trying to open up a permanent looting tor work- 
ing students in Egypt. The time seems to have come (or some 
such step, as men are coming tor ward and we need some regu- 
lar organized basis for them. If this should succeed I much 
hope that I may have the pleasure of having some American 
students to join with me Irom time to time. You mav have seen 
in The Academy the list of the long historical series that I found 
this year at Koplos, which has opened a new chapter in Egyp- 
tian history." 

The importance ol having a school in Egypt for the training 
ot students in practical Egyptology needs no echo from my pen. 
A few years ago I advocated the measure and, with the co-oper- 
ation ot Professor Norton, of Harvard, and Hon. Martin Brim- 
mer, of Boston, a Harvard graduate, passed some months with 
Dr. Naville in Egypt. 

Dr. Petrie remarks in his circular : "I hope to be able through 
this Research Account to group around my own district ol work 
each year such students as may desire to take up original 
research. It has long been recognized that a British school of 
areh;eology (and American?) is greatly needed in Egypt; and 
as the Research Account developes it may be transformed in the 



EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES. 307 

future into a more definite scheme of an archaeological school. 
Such an institution could hardly have a more appropriate basis 
in England than the Amelia B. Edward's chair at University 
College, which is, as yet, the only established teaching centre 
for the subject in the English language, and on which, there* 
fore devolves, the duty ol making such provision for the British 
students." Dr. Petrie may be addressed at the Edward's Library, 
University College, Gowen Street, London, W. C. 

Dr. Naville writes me a long and interesting letter apropos 
his great undertaking at the site of the temple of Queen Hatastu 
After describing the results thus tar he truly asserts: "But the 
work must be completed. I believe it will require another cam- 

Faign on the same proportion as the last to terminate. * * # 
wish that you could see some of the American travelers 
who were at Deir-el-Bahasi. They will speak to you of the im- 
portance and the interest of the work, cfe visa, and of the neces- 
sity of not stopping till the clearing is finished. I say this 
because I believe it would be disastrous to the work and to the 
fund also to stop or postpone our labors. I did my best to create 
interest among the numerous travelers who came to Luxor, and 
I think I succeeded in some respects. The Americans are those 
who have shown the greatest interest, and as there are among 
them men with very large fortunes they will perhaps give us 
some help. I must mention first Mr. Ayer, of the Chicago 
Museum, a very kind and cultivated man, who said that the 
Chicago people were willing to subscribe lor things of this kind. 
Then there is Mr. Blatchford,* also from Chicago, and lastly, 
the famous millionaire, Mr. Andrew Carnegie. w 

Dr. Naville, in common with myself, fears that the decrease in 
the society's revenue will imperil the completion of the excava- 
tion and ttanscription of the splendid scenes and texts at the she 
of the temple of the Queen Elizabeth of 



AMERICA VISITED IN PRE-COLUMBIAN TIMES. 

Prehistoric America was the subject of two of the papers read 
at the recent meeting of the British Association. Mr. H. Yule 
Oldham endeavored to show from the manuscript map of Andrea 
Bianco in Milan, dated A. D., 1448, that Brazil had been dis- 
covered previous to that date. Not only does it exhibit the re- 
suits of the Portuguese discoveries as far as Cape Verd, bat 
there is drawn at the edge of the map, southwest from that cape, 
in the direction of Brazil, a long stretch of const line, labelled 
" Authentic Island," with a further inscription to the effect that 
it stretches M 1,500 miles westward," This tact, taken in con- 

•Hoa. E- W. Blatcfcford a » lector f» m ttom Egypt ipp— ndla 71# CUtmgv THfcm. 



308 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

nection with Antonio Galvano's story that in A. D. 1447 a Portu- 
guese ship was carried by a great tempest westward until an 
island was discovered, from which gold was brought back to 
Portugal, The author thinks it affords presumptive evidence 
that South America was first seen at that time. In the other 
paper. Dr. E. B. Tylor argues that by a comparison of the Aztec 
and Buddhist myths the Asiatic influence on the pre-Columbian 
culture of America can be proved. He instances the four great 
scenes in the journey of the soul in the land of the dead, de- 
picted in a group in the Aztec picture-writing known as the 
Vatican Codex. These arc the crossing of the river ; the fearful 
passage of the soul between the two mountains which clash to- 
gether; the soul's climbing up the mountain set with sharp obsi- 
dian knives, and the dangers of the wind carrying such knives 
on its blast. But these are strikingly similar to the scenes from 
the Buddhist hells or purgatories as pictured on Japanese temple 
scrolls. Here too are the river, the two mountains being 

Eushcd together by two demons, the mountain of knives and the 
nifc-bladcs flying through the air on fierce blasts of wind. 
These analogues arc so close and complex as to preclude any 
explanation except direct transmission from one religion to 
another. — Reported in Nation. 



•(>■ 



ANCIENT CITY IN Gl/ATKMALA. 

Besides the interesting archaeological collection of the first 
capital of Guatemala, Santiago de Los Cubcleros, now known as 
"Cludad Vicja" (old city), a buried city has recently been dis- 
covered on the sIojmts of the Yolran de A gun, about a league 
east of the former, says the San Francisco Chronule. It lies on 
the Kind of Manuel J. Alvarado, called the l'om|x*ii plantation. 
Not the slightest tradition remains to connect it with the pres- 
ent age. 

Two years ago the owner of the lands, finding a few ancient 
Indian relics, resolved to make excavations at different points 
In one place, at a depth of twelve feet, he has taken out a great 
many rare and interesting objects, such as flower pots, earthen 
vessels lor domestic use, ancient gla/ed ware, large vases of ex- 
ceedingly fine manufacture, covered with engravings and with 
pictures in brilliant colors painted upon them, domestic utensils 
for the kitchen such as the Indians use to this day; axes, ham- 
mers, tomahawks and war clubs of stone ; knives and daggers of 
obsidian, with sharp points and edges; lances and lancets of the 
same material, idols of stone and clay, well-wrought jewelry ot 
torquoise and other precious stones, of all ordinary sizes and 
figures. Among the jewels was found a rare kind of precious 



ANCIEKT CITY IN GAUTEMALA 800 

stone of deep green color, known among the aborigines as the 
chal-chi-villi stone, capable of the highest polish. This stone 
Indian royalty of long ago wore as the waist and breast orna- 
ments on state occasions. 

On some of the finest vases were artistically traced symbols 
and characters, the colors as fresh and brilliant as though they 
had just left the artist's hands. 

Most of the clay idols are well formed. Some of the carved 
faces wear the tragic mask, but in one particular, evidently of a 
later day, is a fat, pot-bellied, round-faced, plump-cheeked little 
chap, the incarnation of good living. The people of that remote 
time must have had a certain sense of humor, and did reverence 
to this idol as the god of fun.* 

Among the stone idols are two worthy of special note, chis- 
eled from a hard brownstone and representing a person in a 
reclining flat front position, with the head erect and the chin on 
a line with the body. The head, face and neck are sculptured 
to a perfect finish, but the rest of the body is in an unfinished 
state. The contour and the expression of the well-cut features 
of the larger one is a most striking likeness to the features of the 
Roman race, while the smaller one represents the highest type 
of our Indian race. On the head of each is a remarkably well 
executed warrior's helmet, mounted with a clear-cut tuft or crest 
o( feathers hanging over a rimless front. Encircling it is a wide 
band, well upon the forehead, ornamented with quadrant figures 
m has relief set closely one within another from the outer lines 
to the center, all arranged with perfect mathematical precision. 
In its make up the helmet closely resembles that *orn by the 
Praetorian guards of Rome. Another idol of natural sire, wrought 
from the same material, attracts attention as being a perfect 
resemblance of the Mongolian race, with slanting moon eyes, 
flat nose and high cheek bones. 

At the foundation level of the houses were found many human 
skeletons scattered about on the floors as though they had fallen 
there by some sudden casualty, some in a sitting posture and 
others lying prone. Some of the skeletons measured from six 
to seven feet in length. Also within these buried dwellings 
were found many human skulls placed in a glazed clay vase orna- 
mented with crude figures in guady colors. In some of these 
vases the heads were placed in an erect position, the chin on a 
level with the rim of the vase, and some were face upward, each 
one holding in his mouth of chal-chivilli stone wrought in the 
sha;>e of the human tongue, and also another class of well- 
wrought precious stone with a hole through it placed immedi- 
ately under the nose. Evidently the latter had served as nose 
jewels. The foreheads of most of the skulls are broad and high, 



•>.•!. ;:*r hfurc* art com moo la Japta 



310 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

the cheek bones prominent and the chin projecting. It seems 
probable that this extinct race esteemed the head as the noblest 
part of the body, and at death had it severed from the trunk and 
kept as a sacred relic of the dead. 



HIEROGLYPHICS AND PRE-PHCENICIAN SCRIPT. 

At one of the recent morning meetings of Section H — An- 
thropology—of the British Association. Mr. Arthur J. Evans 
read a paper on " A New System of Hieroglyphics and Pre- 
Phtirnician Script from Crete and the Peloponnesus/' embodying 
the tentative results of his recent discoveries, alluded to in a 
letter from Crete lately published in these columns. Analogous 
systems had once existed, Mr. Evans thought, within the Euro- 
pean area. He had found similar pictographs on a Dalmatian 
cliff, they still survived in I<apland, and the "Maravigli" figures, 
carved on a limestone rock in the heart of the Maritime Alps, 
were well known. Evidence of a hieroglyphic system just ob- 
tained for Asia Minor in connection with the Hittites had been 
lacking hitherto for Europe. Dr. Schiicmann had begun, and 
others had carried forward, the discovery on Greek soil of a 
civilization which was the equal contemporary of those of Egypt 
and Babylonia. Was this civilization wholly dumb ? Homer 
contained a hint that it was not, and the writer's visit of last year 
to Greece had yielded a clue to the existence, especially in Crete, 
in peculiar seal-stones engraved with symbols of a hieroglyphic 
nature. His still more recent explorations in central and east- 
ern Crete had brought to light a series of these pictographic 
stones, so that he was now able to put together over seventy 
symbols belonging to an independent pictographic system. On 
stones of similar form, on prehistoric vases, and elsewhere ap- 
peared a series of linear characters, many of which seemed to 
grow out of the pictorial forms. 

The Cretan hieroglyphs, like Hittitc and Egyptian ones, fell 
into distinct classes — parts of the human body, arms and imple- 
ments, animal and vegetable forms, objects relating to seafaring, 
astronomy, geometry, and the like ; primitive gesture-language 
appearing in two crossed arms with extended palms. The sym- 
bols occurred in groups, showing traces of a boustrophedon 
arrangement, and exhibiting certain affinities to Hittitc forms. The 
"template," or "templet," of a decorative artist occurred among 
them ; and with a model of this symbol, the writer, guiding him- 
self by a design from a Mycenaean gem from Crete, recon- 
structed the design of a Mycenaean painted ceiling alike re- 
sembling that of Orchomenos and of tombs at Egyptian Thcbc* 
belonging to the eighteenth dynasty (area itioo B. C) The 



AZTEC CREATION LEGENDS. Sll 

linear characters were more like an alphabetic series. These 
fitted on to signs engraved at Cretan Cnossos on the walls of a 
Mycenaean palace, and again to two groups of signs from the 
Mycenxan vase-handles. It was thus possible to reconstruct a 
Mycenaran linear script of some twenty-four characters, each 
probably having a syllabic value. A large number of these 
linear syllabic signs were then shown to be practically identical 
with the syllabic signs used by the Greeks of Cyprus. These 
Cypriote signs illustrated the phonetic value of the Mycenaean 
linear characters. Here, then, were two hitherto undiscovered 
systems of primitive script belonging to the second millennium 
B. C, and going back to a day when the Greeks were unac- 
quainted with Phoenician symbols. These two older systems 
certainly overlapped chronologically, as some pictorial forms of 
the one system appeared in a linear form in the other; the 
double axe, for instance, occurred in two stages of linearization, 
the simpler form being identical with the Cypriote character. 
The picotographs seemed especially Cretan, the Eteocretans be- 
ing especially addicted to their use; the linear forms were My- 
cenxan in the widest sense. Reasons from the Bible and from 
Egyptian monuments were then given for identifying the 
Kteocretans with the Philistines, or Krethi, of Holy Writ — 
The Nation for September, '94. 



Correspondence. 



AZTEC CREATION LEGENDS 
Eiiitot American Antiquarian: 

In reply to the question in yours of the 2nd, in reference to the 
Aztec creation legends, I would say that the most coherent 
account of them is in the works of Ixtlilxochite and Veytia, 
published in Kingsborough, Mexico. We there find the myth 
of the creation of the world, its four ages or suns, followed by 
their respective destructions, and the history of the fifth age, in 
which we live. The codices on which Ixtlilxochite founded his 
history are unquestionably ancient and genuine, and some of 
them arc still preserved in the Goupil collection in Paris. They 
show no trace of European influence. They do, indeed, refer to 
a general deluge, but this is merely one of the four modes of the 
destruction of the world, which occurred in sequence by the 
four elements, wind, fire, earth and water; and is not in any way 
connected with Asiatic myths. 

The first chapter of the Popol Vuh is an authentic cosmogon- 



312 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ical myth. That of the Mixteca, as translated from a pre-Colum- 
bianjcodex, is given fully by Garcia, in his "Ori-gCn de los Indios." 
He also adds that of the Guaymis and others. 

Schoolcraft, in his "Oneota," relates the Tinne myth, and 
others have later. Very many had traditions of a general 
deluge, which I have explained in my "Myths of the New World" 
(chapter VII) as really modifications of the creation myth, and 
not borrowed from missionaries or other continents. 

Truly, D. G. Brinton. 



Editorial. 



WHAT THE SPADE IS TURNING UP IN THE EAST. 

Some two hundred and fifty peasant workmen, under the di- 
rection of Dr. Charles Waldstein, of the American School of 
Archaeology at Athens, have been excavating the Argive He- 
raeon, or temple of Hera (Juno), midway between Argos and 
Mycenae. The old sanctuary on this site was burned B. C.423, 
but a new and more splendid structure was erected in its im- 
mediate vicinity, and adorned with a gold and ivory statue of 
Hera, the work of Polykleitus of S icy on, the famous rival of 
Phidias. This second temple lasted until the Middle Ages. 
Both sites have been laid bare. Not only has complete informa- 
tion of the architecture of these shrines been reached, but works 
of art have been brought to light almost equal in importance to 
the discoveries of Schliemann. Still more interesting, and pos- 
sibly more important, are the results of the explorations of the 
ruins of Nifler, near ancient Babylon, which have been going on 
since 1887, under the direction of Dr. Peters and Prof. Hil- 
pricht, of the University of Pennsylvania. The temple of Bel, 
the first shrine to the god ever systematically excavated, has 
been dug out to its foundations. Evidence has been gained 
from inscriptions that this city was 1,000 years older than scien- 
tists had believed, and that the antiquity of the human race must 
be carried back to a period at least 4,000 years before Christ. 



-o- 



SACRED WELLS IN AMERICA. 

In the western portion of Kansas, about a quarter of a mile 
from Salomon River, there is a sacred well. This curious water 
receptacle is situated on the top of a hill, and has a nearly circu- 
lar form, with about thirty feet diameter. All the hunting tribes 



SACRED WELL8 IN AMERICA. S13 

of the prairie regarded it with a religious intent, mixed with 
awe. The Pani called it, or call it still. Kitch-Walushti, the 
Omahas, Wiwaxube, both names signifying sacred water. The 
miraculous quality of this pool which chiefly astonishes the 
Indian mind, consists in a slow rising of the water whenever a 
large number of people stand around the brink. The water of 
the pool is perfectly limpid and considered to be bottomless; it 
harbors an aquatic monster, which engulfs all the objects thrown 
into it, and never sends them up again. Indians offered to it 
bread, arrows, kerchieft, ear-rings, even blankets, and all this 
sinks down immediately. Before putting clay or paint on their 
faces, the Indians impregnated these substances with the water 
of the well. They never drink of this water, but to allay their 
thirst, go to the neighboring Salomon River. 



A -STAMP' TABLET AND COIN FOUND IN A MICH- 

IGAN MOUND. 

A Carson City. Mich., correspondent of the Detroit News 
writes that the remains of a forgotten race were recently dug up 
from the mounds on the south side of Crystal Lake, Montcalm 
county. One contained five skeletons and the other three. In 
the first mound was an earthen tablet, five inches long, four wide 
and a half an inch thick. It was divided into four quarters. On 
one of them was inscribed curious characters. The skeletons 
wire arrange J in the same relative position, so far as the mound 
was concerned. In the other mound there was a casket of 
earthenware, ten and a half inches long and three and one-half 
inches wide. The cover bore various inscriptions. The char- 
acters found upon the tablet were also prominent upon the 
casket. Upon opening the casket a copper coin about the size 
of a two-cent piece was revealed, together with several stone 
stamps, with which the inscription or marks upon both tablet and 
casket had evidently been made.* There were also two pipes, 
one of stone and the other of pottery, and apparently of the 
same material as the casket Other pieces of pottery were found, 
but so badly broken as to furnish no clew as to what they might 
have been used for. Some of the bones of the skeletons were 
well preserved, showing that the dead men must have been per- 
sons of huge proportions. One of these mounds was partly 
covered by a pine stump three feet six inches in diameter, and 
the ground showed no signs of ever having been disturbed. 

•T re lit r i).x*» o>t codorvc this nod. for the prehistoric tribe* did not place tntcrip- 
t at a j-.ttrr> our c v.n in bott*. «&d did sot often «m "stamp*" for their pottery pet* 
ur*.t \\ :. the t»thjc ilacitttof Michlfaa mveaUfate aad report? 



314 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTES. 

Ilv Albert S. Gatschet, Washington, 1). C. 

Gar rick Mallkrys "Picture Writing of the American Indians" if an 
extensive, profusely illustrated treatise, which, with its eight hundred and 
seven pages in lexicon octavo, fills almost the whole of the "Tenth Annua! 
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology," 1888-0,. There are fifty-four full page 
plates, partly in colors, and not less than twelve hundred and ninety large 
and small cuts ami electrotypes in black print. The colonel refers to a 
former article of his on Indian pictographs, published as a "preliminary 
paper" in the "Fourth Annual Report." The present work is a continua- 
tion and elaboration of the same subject. "Picture writing is the direct and 
durable expression of ideas of which gesture language gives the transient 
expression" (p. 26). The treatment of the petroglyphict in both Americas 
is followed by that of the African, Asiatic and European glyphs, and by a 
sketch of the substances, tools and other appliances which serve to produce 
and perpetuate them. The pictorial marks for Indian totems and messages, 
tribal and clan designations, tattooing, and (>ersonal names form another 
interesting chapter, which occupies over one hundred pages. Other pecu- 
liarities which Indians express very graphically by picture marks and 
characters arc those conveyed by religion, customs and manners, shaman- 
ism and symbolism, historic events, biography, significance of colors (twenty 
pages), abstract ideas, gesture and posture signs when depicted. It is no 
exaggeration to call this article a full and rich cycIo|>cdta of pictography, 
through which the development of art can t>c studied in its earlier ard 
earliest stages among a large number of nations. No textual description 
will do justice to the wealth of information contained in these pages, we 
have to read the book ourselves and then we will say the perusal of it can 
be better called «i fiUaiur? anJ d, light than a study. Ily his great skill! in 
graphic representation Dr. W. ). 1 (off man has materia! I v added to the value 
of Mallcry's artistic treatise; he has shewn that illustration and pictures 
can teach us many things much more accurately and impressively than the 
l»est textual description*. This is also the reason why in <>ur weeklies and 
magazines, even in the daily prcs-, illustrations begin tn influence and even 
to crowd out the printed matter. 

Fri:i»i kh k Ki'K/. an artist painter of northwestern landscape scenery 
and of the Indians of that region, though but little known in this country, 
has left sketi hes which -how hirn !■> have been a sui cct*fu! rival of Catlin. 
He was born and raised in the cit> "t heme. Switzerland. In iSjq he met 
Alexander von Humboldt and was cntoura^ed by h:tn to visit America for 
the artistn purjKj>c of sketching, which Kurx had nurtured since his buy- 
hood. In I1S16 he was 11. New Orleans anil in 184S on the I'pper Missouri, 
lie left a complete and very interesting >bar> nf his travels and observations, 
written in (ierrn.in, whuh ;* n> w being published by the Geographical 



ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTES. 816 



Society of Berne and by the 'Schwrixcriscbc Rundschau" (1804), and were 
composed from t8$l to 1856, Kurz's sketches of Indians* of which speci- 
mens arc given, show a well-trained, artistically perfect taste in the deline- 
ation of Indian characteristic features. The tribes among whom Kurt (died 
in 1871) has sojourned were the Crees and all the Northern Missouri tribes 
of Siouan genealogy, and the vocabulary of some of these are subjoined. 

Dr. Fkkdp.rich S. Krauss, while steadfastly pursuing his ethnographic 
studies on the Slavic nations of Austria and the circumjacent countries, has 
just published a treatise, " Hoarse kur god sckaft bti d*n Studs Javtm," which 
appeared in Schmelti's Internationales Archiv fur Ethnographic, Leiden, 
i8g4. Vol. II, and holds thirty-eight pages in large quarto. Hie queer- 
sounding, long German term for a widespread antique custom signifies 
"godfathership through hair-shearing," or as the Serbians have it: "shorn - 
hair sponsorship" ( shishano kumstvo ). According to Dr. Krauss, the 
singular custom arose from the idea that cutting one's hair and presenting 
it to a superior means partial or total surrender of oneself, and when the 
lives of war-captives were spared, their hair had to be offered to the deity 
or to the spirits of those who fell in battle. Bondsmen had to surrender a 
lock of hair as a sign of being tributaries to their "seignours". Later 00 it 
became a token of adoption into a family. Wherever the custom is still 
prevailing, it can be understood only as a remnant of the clan system form- 
erly extending over all of Northern and Eastern Europe. At an early date 
it became also an ecclesiastic rite, though more in the Greek than in the 
Roman Catholic church, in the baptism of children. The oldest document 
referring to it is a Guslar son $ of the second half of the fifteenth century, 
which extols the warlike exploits of the Slavonic hero Grujos Novakovitch. 
Krauss succeeded in gathering the text of it from some old popular trouba- 
dours, and with two other similar texts from the eighteenth century published 
it with a metrical translation in German. These texts are highly poetical 
and rather extensive; they cover not leas than seventeen closely-printed pages* 

I>k. Kkasz Boas has favored us with the transmission of several new 
articles from his pen. all of which are enriching ethnologic science in a 
singular degree. One of them is an extensive vocabulary of the Cumber- 
land dulcet ol Eskimo, collected in 1883 and 1884 by the author on his 
fourteen-month travel in Baffin Land. This dialect is spoken on Cumber- 
land Sound and on the western coast of Baffin Bay; it approximates more 
closely to the language of Labrador than to that of Greenland, and the 
same may be said of the customs and manners of the tribes inhabiting these 
lonesome tract.s of country. The definitions are German, and the title is, 
"Der K*k-.ino Dialect des Cumberland -Sundes. von Franz Boas." First 
(asm \c Wicn. i8v4. Quarto. The work was printed by the Anthropologic 
>oo.et\ of Vienna, and is contained in the fourteenth volume of the nrw 
seno, pages «;7 to 1 14. Many of the terms are illustrated by parallel forms 
fr«>;n the Labrador (L) and Greenland (G) dialect, and the whole amounts 
to < vcr one thousand words.— Follows the address before the section of 
Anthro|»o!<»gy at the Brooklyn meeting of the American Association for the 
Advan< ement <>f Science, delivered by Dr. Boas, as vice-president of Section 
1 1. A;: k ".ist. i&>*. The subject is, "Human faculty as Determined by Race." 
Hts remarks, condensed in the narrow compass of twenty-nine pages* 
illustrate, among other things, the fact that the intellectual faculties of the 



316 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

white race differ only in degree from those of the lest favored races, and 
not in kind, and that there is no reason to suppose that they are unable to 
reach the level of civilization represented by the bulk of our own people. 

Two weighty articles of Boas are printed in the "Memoirs of the International 
Congress of Anthropology/' held in Chicago, 1893 (Schulte Publishing Co.): 
"Physical Anthropology. The Anthropology of the North American Indian" 
(pp. 13). and "Classification of the Languages of the North Pacific Coast (of 
America)** (p. 8). Dr. Boas has, for many years, been at work as a specialist 
on the anthropometry and somatology of the North American races, and his 
results as published here and in the "Address" are striking for their import* 
ance, acumen and novelty. They are placing our knowledge of the North- 
western Indian on a new and more solid basis. In his classification of the 
northwestern languages he agrees with many of the results published before 
him, but is willing to unite Tlingit and Haida into one stock, perhaps both 
akin to Athapaskan. The Aht or Noutka has to be classed with Kwakiutl. 
Boas' remarks on the structure of all these languages are of decided merit. 

Zelia Nutt all's "Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System," 
which she communicated to the Tenth International Congress of American* 
ists in Stockholm ( 1804)1 has now been printed in the Transactions of the 
Congress, and embraces thirty -six octavo pages. The lady had presented 
her views on that topic to several anthropological societies in the East of 
the United States during her travels in 1893. and some of her results, which 
somewhat differ from those of other investigators, arc laid down in the 
following sentences: (P. 28) "The religious festival periods of the Mexican 
year must not be confounded, as heretofore, with the eighteen so-called 
"months" of the civil solar year. Kach of the latter were headed by a day 
itf enforced rest and contained set market-days, at intervals of rive days." 
"The religious festival periods were partly moveable and partly ruled by 
the central ritual year contained in each solar year. In three well-authenti- 
cated instances the )>cginmiig of a festival period is shown to have coincided 
with the first day of one of the thirteen periods of twenty days contained in 
the ritual year." (P. 3;) "The Mexican solar year began with the vernal 
equinox, the native calendar system attempted to tiring into accord the 
apparent movements of the sun, the moon and planet Venus." 

Mk. Husky Car soy, professor at the Lycec Montaigne, and editor of 
"La Tradition," is preparing a cyclopedia of biography which will prove of 
singular interest to all ethnographers and students of cognate sciences. 
It is an "International Dictionary of the folklorists of «mr tunc, and particu- 
lar stress is la. <I upon hating the hihliographua! part as complete as possi- 
ble. The work will he published in the French language, by (i. Colombter, 
No. 4 Kuc Cassette, Paris. Kolklorists of all countries and nations are 
invited to send biographic notices of their lives and literary works, to the 
leiik'th of about two mlimins, small folio, but they must become simul- 
taneously subscribers to the "l>ictionnairc" for the amount of twenty francs. 
or four dollars. Th< >c wishing to sec their likeness added to their biog- 
raphy, please ad' 1 , fifteen francs to the above, together with their photo- 
graph. The portraits will be produced also in "Tradition." What is before 
us looks '(uitc attractive; there arc notices on the work* and achievements 
of M. Dragonianow, a Ku»sian; of Ci. (jcorgcakis, a tircek, C. A vol 10, a 
Sicilian; S. Prato. an Italian; A. Hock, a lleigtan; I. Bernstein, from Podolia 



ARCHAEOLOGICAL NOTE8. 317 

and others, with their portraits, which are almost cabinet site. Con* 
tnbutors wishing to perpetuate their literary productions in this collection 
have to address them to Professor Henry Carooy, Lycce Montaigne, 12S 
Boulevard Montparnasse, Paris, France. All moneys to be remitted to Mr* 
G. Colombier, address as above. 

Zapotec: Language.— A very voluminous dictionary of the Zapotec lan- 
guage, spoken by Indians of Oauica, Southern Mexico, has been surrendered 
by the president of the Mexican States to the Junta Colombtna of Mexico 
City, and published by them in a splendid folio volume. The dictionary 
has the Spanish term first and the Zapotec word or words second, and it is 
not known whether a vocabulary has ever been composed for it with the 
Zapotec term standing first It is printed in two columns, and from an 
average calculation can not contain less than ten thousand Spanish terms* 
while the Zapotec terms are more numerous. The manuscript volume is a 
huge quarto volume, in two columns, and appears to be dating from the 
middle of the eighteenth century, has no preface nor title, and is bound in 
parchment. On its back we read: Dicionario sapoteco del Balle. Nothing 
in it indicates the name of its author, and it is a clean copy of an earlier 
manuscript. The orthography of the Spanish terms is not at all correct, 
and the Zapotec dialect of it differs from that of Cordoba's vocabulary. 
The arrangement of the phrases and sentences in the manuscript is so 
confuse that much additional work would oe required to refund the volume 
entirely. The title is in full: Vocabulario Caste llano- Zapoteco. Publtcado 
por la junta colombina de Mexico con rootivo de la celebracion del cuarto 
centcnarto del descubrimiento de America. Mexico: oficina typografica de 
la Secretarta de fomento. Calle de San Andres, Numero 15. 1893. pp. 

Ill and 222. 

o 

ARCH /tO LOGICAL NOTES. 

M astoim)n Remains.— A notice of the tribes of Siberia given tn a review 
*»f a recent hook is to the effect that one of the chief means of living is the 
cat he ring of mastodon bones. This suggests that the number of these mon- 
sters must t>c very great, and that there must have been some mighty con* 
YuUion or change, which has not yet been fully described, which imprisoned 
in the frozen mud so many of these denizens of the ancient fields and 
plains of that region. 

Another Canard has appeared and is gradually floating around among 
the newspapers, probably originating with that famous liar, Joe Mulhaton. 
This time the story is that in the caves of Nebraska many bones of extinct 
ar.imaU have been discovered, and associated with them the bones of man* 
possih'.y the tx>ncs of the forerunner of man. Many ot the animals were 
masttnions, with nbs some twenty-eight feet in length. The writer does not 
tell the height of the cave nor the entire height of the animals, but we con* 
dude his eyes, which saw "men as trees, walking,'* need to be touched 
aga:n and another miracle wrought, so that he can see things which are a 
little more reasonable and natural. 

Another Mastodon has been found near Dunkirk, in New York State. 
The head is in good preservation, and was about fire feet across. The 



31H THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

tusks are also about five feet long. One tooth weighed four pounds, and 
was seven inches long by four broad. 

The Mastodon Hones found in Cincinnati are well authenticated. 

AsTigi'iTV of Languages.— "We can trace back the languages of 
Egypt, of Ilabylonia, of India, of China, for a long distance beyond the 
occurrence of regular annals in those countries— back, in fact, to the stone 
age in each, and similarly with the mythology, and the result is that, instead 
of apparently reaching a common origin and common elements in them, 
the gap between them seems to get wider as we go back, until we have to 
confess that if there was a common fountain to the various streams it must 
have been at a period so remote that we have no materials at present by 
which to trace them to it. The men who wrote the Book of the Dead, those 
who wrote the epic of Sargon I., those who wrote the Vedas, and those 
who wrote the Chinese classics, if they were descended, as we believe, from 
common parents, must have been isolated from each other for a long period 
in order to become so differentiated at such early date."— A rticlt by Sir 
Henry Hotvartk, Antiquary, September ; 1S94. 

The Philistines— The people called Krethi were perhaps identical with 
the Philistines. The Hebrew tradition is that these came from the Medit- 
erranean islands. The parallel is observed between the tributary vases 
seen on Egyptian monuments and those on engraved gems, inasmuch as 
the dress, the peaked shoes and long hair represent the inhabitants of the 
island in Mycetuan times. There is a parallel in the pictographs of Crete 
and the earliest form of Phoenician letters which confirms the early Cretan 
colonization of the Assyrian coast. 

(jEoi.ogivts and Dkliges.— Prof. W. J. Sol las has delivered a popular 
lecture in the institute of Clarendon Press, in which he takes the ground 
that the story of the deluge was based upon local floods, and refers to the 
fact that 111 Kgypt, where the rise of the Nile i» regular, there is no tradition 
of the rio4*l, but the Chaldean story and the (ircck story of Ducalion, 
Guduhar, were based upon calamitous overflowings of the Tigris, possibly 
caused by earthquakes or cyclones, which drove the waters of the Persian 
gulf up the Tigris. The identification of the (ti/dulur legend with that of 
Hercules shows that the ( ircck s borrowed the epic. The Kgyptians had 
sun stories, but they were Mtthout that of (tinluhar. 

Phut. Vimhow \ HrsY I. in.- Prof. Virrhim is one of the most remark- 
able men >>f the rentury. He will he 71 years of age on the 13th of nest 
October, ami yet his physical, as well as his mental, activity seems to be 
untiring and limitless. Me has just given an extraordinary proof of this. 
He recently attended the "Congress <»( Americanists" at Stockholm, the 
object of which was to £i\c opportunity for an exchange of ideas on the 
antiquities and a M h rojx> I o k »y of the American continent, both north and 
south, and of < curse Professor Virchow, as the most distinguished Kuropean 
anthropologist of the present day. took a prominent part in the transactions. 
When they were concluded he started for licrlin, and arrived there early 
one morning -1 few days ago, after two days and three nights of constant 
travel by land and water. Me delivered an address at a meeting of one of 
he scientific associations at Berlin, and at $ u clock the same evening took 



ARCHAEOLOGICAL NOTES. 310 

his departure for Scrajevo, the capita) of Bosnia, where an archaeological 
and anthropological congress was about to assemble. Serajevo is quite as 
far to the southward of Berlin as Stockholm is to the north, so that Professor 
Virchow really traveled for five or six successive days and nights, and bore 
the fatigues of the journey like a young man. He was the presiding officer 
of the congress, and was one of the most active and interested participants, 
not only in its discussions, but in its excursions to neighboring localities, in 
which some very instructive remains of ancient races have recently been 
unearthed. He is now on his return to Berlin, and has stopped for a day or 
two at Innsbruck to rest, as he understands the term; that is, in presiding 
over a joint meeting of the German and the Vienna Anthropological Societies. 

The Copper Age.— An account of the discoveries made at Tel-el-Hest, 
the site of the ancient city of Lachish, gave rise in the British Association 
to a discussion on the probability of a copper age. Throughout the mound, 
from the bottom to the top, were found Bint and metallic implements. Among 
them was a thick chisel, made of copper, which had been hardened by 
mixture with red oxide of copper. Toward the top of the mound were 
bronze arrow-heads, which dated back to 1400 and 1500 B. C. and a change 
was observed from copper to bronte and from bronze to iron. Sir John 
Kvans spoke of the evidence of a copper age preceding a bronte age in 
America, Ireland and Hungary. Dr, Hildebrand said several implements 
of pure copper had been found in Sweden. Prof. Boyd Dawkins thought 
that the copper age in North America was aside of the neolithic age. 

Astronomy Among the I nc as.— There are proofs that the Incas had a 
rc.il system of astronomy. Six nations only — China, Mongolia, India, 
Chaltlcn. Kgypt and Australia— had, upon the discovery, divided the celes- 
tial sphere into constellations. The Peruvians recognized a few of the 
nn. re brilliant constellations— the Pleiades, Jaguar, the Standard, the South- 
ern Cross. They called ihe Milky Way the "dust of stars." They, in 
common with many other tribes farther north, such as the Zunis and Hop is 
imagined that the sun entered the sea at evening and passed under the 
earth, and twelve hours afterward appeared in the eastern horizon. The 
£o*i himself was represented in sculpture, with his forehead surrounded by 
the royal fillet, in the midst of four fabulous animals moving around him. 

The late Prof. Eben Horsford was sure that he had identified the 
localities reached by the Norsemen, in the neighborhood of Charleston and 
Cambridge. A few excavations were conducted under his lead, and remains 
were discovered which were supposed to have been those of the houses 
occupied. Quite recently Mr. Gerard Fowke has been employed by Miss 
Horseford and has been engaged in excavating in the same localities, but 
with somewhat uncertain results. 



320 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 



BOOK REVIEWS. 

The Iron Hearing Rocks of the Mesota Range in Minnesota, By J. Ed- 
ward Spurr. Geological and Natural History Survey: N. H. Winchell. 
Geologist, Minneapolis. 1894. 

The rocks of the iron-producing region are, in part, greenish schists, 
much metamorphosed, but originally derived from slates, quartzites, gray- 
wackes, etc., brought to resemble one another by dynamic forces. The 
evolution of the rocks has been studied under the microscope by taking 
parts tn localities in small areas. By this means the scheme of devel- 
opment from one type to another has been determined and the whole pro- 
cess of the changes which have occurred in the iron-bearing range is made 
known. It is held that the rock could not have been an argillaceous sedi- 
ment. 

AV/W on ike Ancient Mexican Calendar System, Bv Zelia Nutall. Com- 
municated to the Tenth International Congress c( Americanists. Stock- 
holm. 180,4. 

Mrs. Nutall has given the most satisfactory account of the Mexican 
calendar system that has ever been published, and what is more she gives 
it in a manner that can be understood. The following arc the positions she 
takes and the conclusions she has reached: (1.) There was a great epoch, 
1040 years, which contained twenty cycles of tidy-two years, each of which 
began with a year and a day numbered Tacatl. (2.) There was a solar 
year, which was divided into eighteen months of twenty days each, but 
which had in its center a ritual year called the kernel of the solar year, the 
months of the ritual year hciiii: numbered in thirleens, making yo days. 
The name of the solar vear was taken from the name of the first dav of the 

* * 

ritual year. The ritual year, with its thirteen periods, which occupied the 
center, w.is movable, as the ritual vear in the Kn^lish prayer -Ixwk, but was 
ad Misled l" the solar year, and many of the feasts had regard tn the opera- 
tions of nature in the solar vear. The division of the ritual vear into thir- 
teen da\o may be traced to natural causes, as in u eh as the divisions of the 
solar year arc. They re< ki»ned the >car from the ojmrrnx in March, when 
the sun cast a straight shadow, for the sun wa% the chief factor in regulat- 
ing the calendar, but thev rectified retrogressions at the end ol hft)-two 
years by adding thirteen 'lays. (|.i The divisions of the year arose from 
the custom of dedicating to each deity a period of twenty days. e.g.. the 
day T.v all w a* dedicated to nuct/aioati; the day Teccatl to lluitidopochtli, 
the war god. There were eighteen su* h periods, each period beginning 
with a pcrmd of enforced rest. 15.) Certain constellations, and conjunctions 
of the planets with the sun and moon, were noticed and had an influence 
a: the feasts. These were taken as the sign of the advent of the god during 
tr.c fcsti\al. The slow ascent of the »un in its course was dramatized by 
the capt.ve. who slowly ascended the flight of steps of the Teoc alls and 
four.d his way to the sacrificial stone, making long delays, but he mounted 
the sacr;t.cial stone at noon precisely, (/j.i The regular rotation of the coin- 



BOOK REVIEWS. 821 

in u nal market, which took place every rive days, was the regular beat of a 
giant heart, which, with the enforced rest of every twenty days, made the 
calendar the powerful factor in the social and religious life, the first coming 
from a civil enactment, the last, a ritual. The opinion is advanced that 
market clays followed the order of the element symbols, as aquatic plants 
were sold on Acatl days, mineral on Tecpatl, house articles on Calli days, 
animals on Tochtli days. (7.) The seasons were named after certain ele- 
ments, whose symbols were always prominent, and a god presided over the 
elements. (8.) The entire population of Mexico was subdivided into twenty 
c lists or kinships, grouped under four heads, identified by certain day signs, 
different branches of industry being followed by these custs. By this 
means a thorough control of all human activity, divided into trades, and of 
all the products of the land on the certain market days, was secured and 
regulated by the calendar. 

Xftraska Historical Socuty. Proceedings and Collections. Published 
Quarterly. Vol. I, Second Series. 

This is a little journal of sixty-four pages, and contains ten papers— one 
by Mr. John A. Mc Murphy on the "Making of a Great State;" the second, 
the "Life of Governor Burt," by Clyde B. Atchison;" the third, "Remin- 
ismces of l'.arly Days." by B. J. Johnson. It is unfortunate that the exter- 
nal appearance of the initial number should be so faulty, and yet the hope 
is that the journal will improve in this, and that the interest in the early 
hi>torv of the >tate will be increased by it. and that the result will he a 
large increase of matter in the way of books, documents and historical data. 
\\ e notice a few allusions to the aborigines of the state, and notice one 
rather remarkable statement. Mr. McMurphy says: •'The Indians have 
teen divided respectively into fishing and hunting tribes or the corn or 
. r. p^rouing tribes, or by another authority by the canoe and boat Indians 

< t the east and the horse-ruling Indians of the plains." The same writer 
rn<N tailt. anil justly, with the barbarous spelling of Indian words which 
has !>ccn adopted by some of the members of the Ethnological Bureau. 
He n.i\« "The Indian for pony is 'Shonga.' I spell it 'Shonga.' What is 
the ;sc of putting in consonants until the word looks like this: T-M-c-h-o-n- 
i. a ah. No human tongue can pronounce it that way, not even one of 

< ..i::i.\t > anthropoids.' The subjects to which the quarterly will be devoted 
are ct.umerated as follows: Freighting Overland Travel before 1868; Indian 
Ir.l'cv Indian Chiefs and Noted Warriors; Indian Wars; Special Settle- 
i:.etttN hounding of Academies and Colleges; Local Incidents; Civil War 
History; Iwp.anation of Names of Cities, Rivers and Counties. The last 
«uS'cU is exceedingly important, and should be carefully treated and that 
pr<-mpt!v. 

^ .ir.is The History. Manufacture and Symbolism of the Scarabxus, 
ct' \\\ Isaac Myer, LL.U. New York: Edwin F. Dayton. Pp. 177. 

r e* symtK>l* arc more prominent in the art of ancient Egypt than the 
beetle, and the interpretation of its significance has occupied not a few 
students. In the volume before us the author presents us with the results 
of h;s long and close investigation of the question, based upon a careful 
o ..anon of sources as well as extended observations of the objects them- 
selves. After discussing the entomology of the insect a number of interest- 



323 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

ing particulars are furnished of the methods of manufacture of its similitudes 
in stone, the engraving of inscriptions upon them, and the date of the oldest 
yet discovered. This leads to a discussion of the use of the emblem in the 
sacred rites, especially those connected with the interment of the dead. 
The conclusion reached is that the scarab in the Egyptian symbolism rep* 
resented the belief in a life hereafter and a resurrection of the soul. Later 
chapters deal with the scarab as a symbol among the Phoenicians Etruscans. 
Greeks and Romans, and with the forgery of scarabs in modern times, which 
appears to be carried on so skillfully that even expert antiquaries are at 
times deceived. D. G. B. 

History of the Scandinavians and Biographies. Vol. I. By O. N. Nelson. 
Minneapolis. Minn. 1893. 

This hook is edited by O. N. Nelson, but is made up of contributions from 
various writers, some of which have already been published in the Scandi- 
navian papers. It contains a sketch of the Icelandic discoveries, the first 
Swc.lish settlement in America and the first Norwegian immigtation; an 
account of a Swedish colony in Illinois, also an account of the Scandinavian 
regiment, a historical review of the different churches— Lutheran, Baptist. 
Methodist and Evangelical mission, biographies of Scandinavians in Min- 
nesota, with portraits. It is a book which brings to mind the advent of the 
Scandinavians at widely separated intervals, the first appearance being 
about 1000, the last heavy installment beginning about 1800, the interval 
having been tilled by immigration from other nationalities from the west of 
Europe, such as the English, French and Spanish. The colonics from 
Scandinavia were mainly in the interior— Wisconsin ami Minnesota— where 
the mingling of the Scandinavian blood with that of the previous popula- 
tion has been easy ami rapid, and their greatest commendation is that they 
have so thoroughly adopted our American customs and ways, and have 
become so patriotic and loyal citizens. There arc no anarchists among the 
Scandinavians. Anarchy would not consort with their previous history or 
training. 



THE 



Jlmmom Jtutwim*. 



Vol XVI. Kovkmbkk, 1894. No. 6. 



ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS -THE POLYNESIAN 

ROUTE. 

By Jamks Wickkksiiam. 

In the January number of The Antiquarian Professor Cyrus 
Thomas begins a series of very interesting articles on the origin 
<>l the American trilxrs, and in which he very learnedly sup- 
ports the theory that they came to America over the Polynesian 
islands. He finds a wide difference Ik* t ween the Pacific coast 
tribes and those inhabiting the region west of the Rocky mount- 
ain>; he includes in the Pacific coast type all that ocean fringe 
population from Alaska to Nicaragua (except, perhaps, in Cali- 
fornia 1 and including the semi-civilized Aztecs and Central 
Americans. The theory seems to be that the Pacific coast tvpe 
is Polynesian and the eastern tribes of America are of a differ- 
ent origin. He then presents a comparative view of the cus- 
t* 'lib, traditions, languages and physical appearance of the Pacific 
ii>.t"t upe with those of the South Sea Islanders, and upon this 
^lic-hv-Mde examination concludes that thev are of the same 
o'.otk or type ot man; that the New Zealander and the tribes 
i.t the Pacific coast of America are brothers; that America 
was peopled bv these South Sea Islanders; that the evidence 
oi tlr.s tact i-xi>ts in the similarity of these customs, traditions, 
languages and physical appearances. He presents as proof of 
his theory the similarities pointed out by Niblack between the 
Maoris nt New Zealand and the Hatdas of our own coast; al- 
togrther he presents proof quite sufficient to establish one point 
::i hi* argument, viz.: the relationship between the Pacific coast 
type and the New Zealander and other tribes of Polynesia. 
Hut does the tact of relationship, even when admitted, prove 
the course of migration? 

Suppose they do look alike, talk alike, and repeat the same 
traditions; grant that they are related and belong to the same 



32*i THK AMEKIl'AN ANTKjt'AKlAN. 

stock or type of man; admit that they sprang from the same 
common ancestor, and that thev are brothers; how docs that 
prove that the ancestors of our American tribes came from Asia 
over tlit? Polynesian islands? I grant the truth of ail the evi- 
dence presented in support of the relationship between th/sc 
widelv separated tribes; Niblack failed only in not finding many 
more points of resemblance between the tribes of the northwest 
coast and of New Zealand; but I deny the correctness ot the 
conclusion reached bv Professor Thomas. I deny that America 
was peopled from Asia by way of the Pacific islands. 

The Pacific ocean covers nearly one-halt the earth's surface; 
from the Malay peninsula to the west coast of South America, 
on the line ot the equator, is 1S0 degrees, or exactly one-hall the 
greatest circumference of the globe. Across this wide waste of 
unknown seas we are told that the Asiatic Mongoloid paddled 
his canoe, without compass or chart, from island to island, until 
crossing the 12,500 miles he rested upon and inhabited the con- 
tinents ot America. These islam! resting places are mere specks 
in this vast ocean, from hxj to 2,000 miles apart. lie was 
forced to make voyages, from land to land, greater than that 
from Ireland to New Foundland; greater than from Africa to 
the coast ot South America. If, without compass, he missed 
his small island resting pi. ices ht- could only continue eastward 
until by accident he should find another. A voyage, s.iv ot 2,000 
miles, ma canoe must certainly take not less than too (lavs, and 
provisions and water lor this time must be carried; a canoe would 
not be sufiicimt. When all the di!!5i ulties of such a voyage are 
considered, the voyage of discovery pel formed bv Cdumhus fades 
into insignificance when compared with it. From Faster island 
to the nearest point on the Chilean coast is 2,<»;o nautical miles; 
from Master island to the next nearest island westward inhabited 
by Smith Se.i natives is i,s<x> nautical mi!cs Faster island is 
thirteen miles long. From Honolulu to San Francisco is j,o>o 
nautical miles; consider .1 canoe voyage irom either Kaster or 
Hawaiian islands, without compass or chart, against Injth wind 
and current, bv an Indian 111 a canoe* 

Then how rnav we account tor the apparent relationship 
between the New Zealander and the Haidah of mir own shores? 
How explain the existence of the same type of people in Amer- 
ica and on the widely-separated, tar-away Pacific islands? ll 
the admitted relationship and (acts do not prove Prol. Thomas* 
theory, wli.it do thev prove: 

There is no doubt th.it many of the nearer and larger ot the 
Pacific islands were peopled from Asia, for the black popula- 
tion had over-run New Zealand. It is quite probable that this 
migration eastward from Asm had thrown the Papuan race 
upon the shores o| Australia, New Zealand and the Fiji islands; 
that the islands ot Micronesia were inhabited from Asia may 
also be admitted; it is quite probable, however, that these were 



ullliilNOi'TIIK INPIANS-TI1K IIU.YNKSIAX KOl'TK. 3J7 

mixed with ilia 1 , race which larther east is called the Polynesian; 
hut ih.il Polynesia was inhabited from Asia, or that America 
received anv part ot her population Irom Polynesia, is not be- 
lieved in hi* true. Whv is it th.it l he Papuan race, which 
inhabited New Zealand belnre the PoKnesian, hail not reached 
A merit a." All the islands ot Polynesia were inhabited hv a 
coppei -colored race nearlv akin lo the Indians <>t America, and 
\ei\ likely the Japanese; between them .ind the coasts ol Asia 
i -\i*!cd the Papuan and the Micronesians; whv did nut the 
l'ol\ -ues'.ins inhabit the larger islands ot Australia, New (tumea, 

lloin ind the Philippines* because thev did n<>t come east- 

w.ud liiiiu Asia, hut reached Polynesia Irom the tar or eastern 

The gicat ocean currents ol the ei]iiatori.il Pacific flow from 
' .i< :•• west, tmrn the shores ot America to the shores ot Asia. 
Tin- tit : 1 1 ot the Pai ific in the region ol the alleged Polynesian 
i • iii!t- is wis? ward: the prevailing winds arc in the s.ime direc- 
{:• n; iiii i ast.iwav vessel in th:s icgmn has ever taken bul one 
1 1 iiii si- toward the shores ot Asia. It is oniv hv design that 
n.au timid h.i\e crossed Irom Asia to America in this wide sea 
k ^:i.:i, and the r,\>:in^ well-known natural conditions ot wind 
ar.ii tutrenl v.\\\< he changed helore we i an « onceive ol such a 
vn\<r hein^ pel ti'rmed, even Irom one island home lo another. 
Not ■ ne iot.i ut evidence has ever heen produced to prove one 
mji ii vii\.i^r; no record ol one such exists; neither hv accident 
:.t,i ilfsr^n ji.is ,in instance occurred wherehv a Polynesian has 
heen :n\ oiuntanlv or otherwise thrown upon the American 
C"i*\ The Polynesian theory exists without any evidence to 
-u;p"i t i'.. 

T:.e n«iitr em equatorial current ol the Pacific takes its rise 
i :l v.e i-'.is 1 . t»t Lower California, and joining force with the 
^ii ■ \\ Humboldt current from up the west coast ol South 
A:..ei:» a, ti >\\s m a broad, resistless equatorial flood halt around 
:". i woi!i: t imt:. striking the shores ot Asia it divides, one 
:-:ari ii I'em^ driven northward past the green hills ot Japan, oil 
\\:.:» :. .t recedes t.'ie .incient Japanese name 4l Kuro-schiwo," or 
"■'ivn ^.ir.itii." Thence Mowing eastward just south ot the 
A. i u'-.-n islands until it reaches the coasts ot America, il sweeps 
s'.uv.w.iii: ;■,:"»• the lir-il.ul hills ot Washington and Oregon to 
■i-:n •.':.«■ « ./i.r.o! i.tl current again nil the coasts ol California — a 
:i;-i-' -'a I'Umii iiirietit on its never ceasing halt world circuit. 
It > :«# t:.> w.sirn <a ean river that we .ire to look tor the expla- 
im 1 :- n ■ t the relationship between the New Zealander and the 
H.iiii.i « t our Northwest coast. It is this great highway we 
::.■.;*: examine tor evidences ol migration. Here is otlcrcd at 
.e.:-t a re. I*. .naKc probability ol a route of travel; here is a 
mear-.s h\ w i.^h, without compass or volition on the part of 
!:..::?, ti.e smallest islands ot the broad Pacific may have been 
populated. It were only necessary for the voyager to preserve 



328 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

life, and, without effort, in this broad, majestic and resistless 
current he will be swept from either the shores of Asia or the 
coasts of America, westward across the Pacific, and thrown on 
the shores of these small equatorial islands, and if none inter- 
vene may even be carried again to Asia or back again to 
America. This great wheel current of the North Pacific is the 
route traveled by casta wavs Irom Asiatic and American shores; 
on its outer rim around this great circuit is found the same tvpe 
of man— the Japanese, the Haida, and the Polynesian. This 
current is the migration route over which the Mongolian tribes 
of Asia may have reached America and the islands of the Pa- 
cific. Is there any evidence that such an instance ever oc- 
curred—is there proof of this theory? 

First, however, let us understand that there is a probable 
unity of blood between the tribes inhabiting the Pacific islands 
of Polynesia. "No writer, probably, is entitled to more weight 
in his views of the identity and the heterogeneity of the oceanic 
races than Mr. Kllis, who has spent many years of a useful life 
among the groups ot the Pacific, noting intelligently and inves- 
tigating patiently their history, traditions languages and rela- 
tionship to each other. He authoritatively states, from his own 
observations, that the natives of Chatham Island and New Zea- 
land in the south, the Sandwich Islands in the north, the 
Fnendlv Islands in the west, and all the intermediate islands, as 
far as Kaster Island in the east, are one piffle. Their mythol- 
ogy, tradition**, manners and customs, language, and physical 
appearances, in their main tcaturc*, .ire, as f.ir as we had an op- 
portunity ol becoming acquainted with them, identically the 
same, vet dilleiing in many respect* Irmn those of the elands 
to the westw.ird ol Tongabatie " Missionary Voyage, .jm 

"This grouping, though extensive, s!i etching through sev- 
enty degrees ol latitude ami seventy degree* ol longitude, is still 
comprised in the western hemisphere, \\ ith the exception of 
New Zealand ; and we pic*ume in these i*!and-peop!es a homo, 
geneity ol r.n e, and a!*o, though with le** jn «n< -urn ed charac- 
terises tin :i/r-i.7//v -vi/4 the f t \i -inJ r**f pi •■-• ,'■»#•./ inh i' itiints 
ot the A merit in ■ i##//i#.v»;.\" '• 11. i w aa," ^I.m.\ Hopk:n>, p. r*\. 

"The New Xe. dander .md I law a;:. in," *.i\ * Mr. Jarvi*, whn 
resided lour \car* in the Sandwiih I*!.imi*, "though more than 
tout thousand mile* apart, with all the intermediate tr:K*«, are 
memln-rs ot one family, and require but a *hort period to ac- 
quire the landtv « >t a hee exchange ol uiea*." Idem, p. 75. 

It *tem*, now, to be ioiiceded that these |H*ot>le are to Ik: 
1 iasscd a* Oi e.imc M<iiigoi:iiae, and have marked characteris- 
tics in common with the native* ot ea*Urn Asia anil western 
America I'role**or Thomas bringing them directly from the 
co.i*t ot A*:. 1, Htep by step, across th.e sm.il! ;imi distant islands. 
Ail !h:*, e.Xie; ■: the direi'.ion ol the migration, being conceded, 
there an*e* .mother preliminary question, vi*: When did this 



OKIiilN I>KTIIKISI>IAN\<-T!!KINMASKSIAS ROITK. 329 

migration lake place-in ancient or modern times* There is 
milling about the population, or the archaeological remains 
upon these islands, to indicate a long continued residence ot 
these i upper-colored inhabitants; on the contrary, their tradi- 
tions, I.m^ua^e, customs and arch;eolo^y, show them to have 
hern comparatively recent occupants, and in some instances so 
recent that historic dates can approximately Ik* determined. It 
is believed that the New Zca landers reached their present 
home in the titici-nth century, and, alter massacreinjj the Pa- 
puan population lound there, took possession ot the island. The 
New Ze.i landers were Tahitians, so thev sav, and came from 
the northeast, "(ireater Britain," Dilkc, p. 293. 

It :s true that remains ot stone images ami other permanent 
.iich;i'<i](i^ual evidences exist on some ot the islands, but none 
<>( these conflict in anywise with the tacts hereinafter set out, 
oi prove that the builders came trom the west rather than via 
tiic north Pacific current; neither do they prove in any decree, 
but rather the reverse, that America was settled trom Poly- 
ui-Nia. Thr>e permanent rcmam.s are not ot a high order, and 
no*, oi that magnitude or extent to justify the conclusion ot a 
ii-!)^ 1 ofiv.nucii resilience by a civilized people. There is not 
tl.e slightest proof that the civiii/alion ol Mexico, Central 
Ante Mi a or Peru came from these South Sea islands; the 
h:-:.i-j t\pe • >l lemains on Kaster Island is related to the ancient 
1 :\ :i./a'jon ni the Celebes, ami not to anything in America.— 
Ii:.n:«'N t .\ tt'th t' oi March 9, iN)^. 

^I'tiuMin;', then, the close relationship between the tribes of 
eastern Asm, western Ameiic.i and Polynesia, what was the 
utilise ot migration across the South Sear Was Oceanica 
penpieii irom Asia: Was America peopled from Oceanica? 
.V» .sate deductions K \\n be reached Irom a comparison ol lan- 
^u.i^es, h.:h:*s v traditions, religion or physical appearances. 
li\ ::.ese. evidences we cannot determine whether America was 
pe'>;<ied limn Oceanica, or Oceanica trom America; we can, of 
i'<u:se, arrive at the sate conclusion of relationship between the 
ran- inhabiting the two regions, but which was the original 
:.i>me: Are there not facts, however, rather than theories, 
u;>mii which to base a conclusion, and if so what are they? 
W:..r. :s tin- evidence upon which to base a judgment? 



Th«- :'.K i.u t, and the important one, too, is the existence of 
::.«• : :*:.ern equatorial current forever bathing the shores ot 
::.•- >. m»:> <»l (Keanua with its westward flow. This and the 
"K ii» -s:.:\\n t M «»r "black stream' 1 of the Japanese, make a 
X'.r..: v\:.eei 1 urrent in the North Pacific ocean, upon the outer 
t iri ur:.vre:uc of which are scattered the wrecks of eastern 
A-.. 1 .icii western America. This endless ocean river bathes 



330 THK AMEKICAX ANTIQUARIAN. 

the shores of Asia, America and the Polynesian islands with its 
warm waters; it carries the drift of Asia to America, and the 
accumulation of Asia and America to the islands ol the mid-Pa- 
cific. This unique current ol the world's greatest ocean is the 
explanation of ihe similarity between the people of Asia, 
America and Oceanica; it has for countless centuries cast 
the drifting east- A si an not only on the coasts of America, but, 
missing that, upon the islands of the Pacific. On the outer rim 
ol this ^reat circling current is lound the same type ol man, in- 
habiting the far distant regions ol japan, Southern Alaska to 
Oregon, Hawaii, New Zealand and the many small islands ol 
Polynesia. This wide distribution of the same type of man was 
accomplished bv thi> never-ending, ever- Mowing, revolving 
occ.m current. 

Ol the possible thousand* of wrecks cast upon the shore* o! 
America and the is!.md> ol the equatorial Pacilic prior to I \)Z 
we can know nothing: but since lh.it date, .ind especially since 
the beginning <i| the seventeenth century, siilfiiient evidence has 
been preserved upon which to base an estimate • >! wh.ii must 
have happened ever siiu e Asia has been inhabited b\ a sea- 
faring people. 

Seven castawav Japanese vessels have beeri thrown upon the 
Aleutian inlands s:iu e the lie^inmn^ ol the seventeenth century. 
*" I fi July, J ^7 I . the i'ld ihiel at Alter Island, .i^ed 71) years, re- 
ported that three Japanese junks hail been it»st upon the Mir- 
rounding islets during his recollection, besides <.ne stranded 
nut I. ir in mi the hai bur ut that island :n i s '»:." In 17**: .1 Jap- 
anese junk w.is wiecked upon the Aleutian elands, from which 
the survivors were taken in one »>i the KussMn-Amci :c.m com- 
pany's viam'N tn Kauitst h.ilk.i and theme returned t<> :he:r na- 
tive island. In I s <>5 .1 junk was wieckrd upon tin' cm>! of 
Alaska, near Sitka, ..ml the cicw w.is quailcnd «»n Jas»<ir*ki 
Isl.iml, .iiid alter wards returned by the Ku^ians ••• Japan. 
Arm*:.er *.\ these wiciks \\,is east upon IJueen v/hariotu*;* 
Island, and two 11; ion \ "am Oliver's Nl.md. In 1^;; another was 
thrown ashore a' Cape blatter \, and tf it- iiew w a» rescued 
limn sla\ei\ among the Mikahs and returned to |.i:mii by the 
Hudson li.i', I'oHi.mmv. Another vessel !■ tailed with beeswax 
w.ts thrown ashi.re near the mouth o! :he Columbia river, 
where the iiew w.ts iao'ured by .u:d amalgamated w:!h the 
Indian*. Srvei.ii floating but abamiom d wrecks have kVen 
sighted 1 ll the i'I'.i>!miI C'aht'-r n:.i, w h:!e 'hreewere thrown 
ashore i-n Lower C'aiitorma ami two :n Mev.io. 4, In l>.\$ the 
I'mted >'ates !i Ig.iie St. Loui^ '.c ■ -k lr om Me\iv«> to Nlligpo, 
in C'h:na, three «h:p-w recked Japanese, being sui\:\ors «-l the 
crew nl a link wh:ih li.it i dr:P.eil Irian the ma>! ol japan, en- 
tiicl\ k icnjN> the P.uiri.- ocean and linailv *'.randcd on the coast 
ol Mex:c-i, w here the\ remained twn \ears." For ages last 
past the shores nl Arin-rua, from the Aleutian islands to Mex- 



<il:liilN OKTIIK INDIANS -TICK llil.YNK*! AN ItOlTK. :«l 

if o, as wi-ll as I he Pac ilic islands, have been .strewn with wrecks 
In mi Asia carrying human freight. "In 2$ fases where the 
actuai number on b.»ard was named, they aggregated 2^\ per- 
sons, .in average ot I2 ; 4 persons to a junk -ranging Iroin ^ to 
:^ :n indivuiu il uim^. Where detinite statistics ot the saved 
air g'.ven, we find 222 person* saved in \\ fases; a*i average 
c <l f ; 4 priN t »ns m each disaster. On eight occasions three per- 
son* were rescued; in luur fases, ime person; and on tour other 
i.i>i"». fi»uf per miiis; three times, eleven were saved; and twice 
r.u ii, >, I 2 % 15, 17; and once each, 2, 0, 7, <), id, 13 were saved. 
• • Fitteen vessels mention having drifted helpless! v a*, sea 
.in i^^ie^ale i»l in'.*'; months, averaging a l:!:ie over seven 
ii'i'!":,s ravii." "Japanese Wiecks," Ihooks, I s 7'>. 

'I ..I- above t.n!s Mitlu lentlv prove the probability ol peopling 
A::n::ia ffuin Asia via the ** Kuro-shiw o," or " hiafk stream," 
ol |.i;mii, vet ssii^ui ti!v enough the author cit the a hove 
;vi;i-, wis:* h was re. id before the Cahlornia Afademv of 
St: :.t e in M.mf., l s 7s. Ml a liter pipe! lead before the same 
s.-i'.i'v'n Ma\, i s 7',used. these arid aiM;*:*': 1 1! tacts in prove 
!f. :' \s:.i iriii liu :dcn!a.'.\ l*oi\ lies; i, tmi.i was peopled from 
A".' 1 : .".i, \'.i -Me collator :a! 1 u: rent "I t.'ie l\ic;!ic. "Origin of 

::.• v. ' , ::i si- K.m'," lift ii ks, i s 7'- 

!r '. - !.:•»: p.ipei Mi. Urni'ks *'{,,. w» how e.isv i» would he 
: ■ t -*i-.s|.r .\.n,; the- »".in» 11: I'eMi. iir even Central America, 
'..-'. ^ advantage «t both wmuj .md 1 uncut, to reai h the coriti- 
!■!■•!■ ■■' As:.i. a:.'i s.i\> "While we have cited facts showing it 
?■ .- ■:•. i'\e : • s'H'-hm' that ei:!v Peruvians ^^^ Central Ameri- 
1 .ir.- 1:: i\ :..i\ e uMiir l<> China hv the ;i:dul continual lair winds, 

.- r. e*s ret ess.ir \ tn n!,,,w the almost insurmountable ditli- 
1 ... -.i * wi.-.iii eMs 1 . during a greater part ol the year to impede 
'.:.' : riti.rn :»v s.-.i. To heat hack against strong trade winds 
*:.e '. 'fi^ regular *r.i> ot the Pacific woiikl he a task in 
w 1 :. t:.c\ would surpass (,ur be>t modern clippers, which now 
v .■ r-.v make tlie \o\age hv running f.ir north and crossing 
!?■■::. Jap. in t-» the o-ast ni" Calilomia, uptiri the arc of a great 
% ::* .« , .ind sa-.iMig theiue southerly, f lose hauled on the wind, to 
*:.<• i:e:^:.: i orh<»ii oi Tahiti in the South Pacific, whicri must 
•■i!i :»e cr-issed :n an eastcrlv direction, south ol the trade 
w :::.:-, w?.:»ji mi turn enable them to make northing and reach 
:':.• i-as". t.i Peru. Such a return vo\.i^e would require ihc 
::.■*: -»Ki!i::il kn<>»\ led^e ot w inds, c oasts and scientific navi^a- 
t:i ::. sii t h .is we have pi»s>e»cd ill crmparalivcly recent times, 
af.i 1 W'U.i: .i!s,, reijuue exieedin^ strong and we.itherly Vessels. 
T:irr si-rr:is t the! elore, less likelihcHnl that any Chinese ever 
ie..i..eii lViu mi pre-historic times hv such a route." 



>.r M.i.\.i7i! lleUher ^ives a very full record of the landing 
<.: .: i.is:.iw.i\ Japanese junk on the Sandwich Islands, in his 



3'.r. TIIK AMEKIIWS ASTIijrAKIAN. 

stock or type ot" man; admit that they sprang from the same 
common ancestor, and that thev are brothers; how does that 
prove that the ancestors of our American tribes came from Asia 
over the Polynesian islands? I grant the truth of all I he evi- 
dence presented in support of the relation ship between th/sc 
widely separated tribes; Niblack failed only in not finding many 
more points of resemblance between the tribes of the northwest 
coast and of New Zealand; but I deny the correctness of the 
conclusion reached by Professor Thomas. I deny that America 
was peopled from Asia by way of the Pacific islands. 

The Pacific ocean covers nearly one-half the earth's surface; 
from the Malay peninsula to the west coast of South America, 
on the line of the equator, is 1S0 degrees, or exactly one-halt the 
greatest circumference of the globe. Across this wide waste of 
unknown seas we are told that the Asiatic Mongoloid paddled 
his canoe, without compass or chart, from island to island, until 
crossing the I ^,500 miles he rested upon and inhabited the con- 
tinents of America. These island resting pi. ices are mere specks 
in this vast ocean, from mu to 2,000 miles apart. lie was 
lorced to make voyages, from land to land, greater than that 
from Ireland to New Foundland: greater than from Africa to 
the coast ot South America. If, without compass, he missed 
his small island resting places he could only continue eastward 
until by accident he should find another. A voyage, say of J .OCX) 
miles, in a canoe must lert.univ take not less than luu (lavs, and 
provisions and water tor this time must he carried: a canoe would 
not be sufficient. When all the di!!u uities of such a voyage are 
considered, the voyage of discovery prr formed by Columbus fades 
into insignificance when compared with it. From Faster island 
to the nearest point on the Chilean coast is J,".;o nautical miles; 
from Faster island to the next nearest island westward inhabited 
by South Se.i natives is i,s<x) nautical mile*; Faster inland is 
thirteen miles long. From Honolulu to San Francisco in j,c*Nj 
nautical miles; iousider a canoe v«»vage from either K.is'er or 
Hawaiian i>lauds, withoir. compass or chart, against Inith wind 
and current, by an Indian in a canoe! 

Then how may we account lor the apparent relationship 
between tiie New /ealander ami the Haidah •>( our own shores? 
How explain the existence of the same type of people in Amer- 
ica and on the widely-separated, tar-awav Pai ific islands? It 
the admitted relationship and lau* do nut prove Prot. Thomas* 
theory, what do they prove? 

There is no doubt that many ot the nearer and larger ot the 
Pacific islands were peopled from A*ia, lor the black popula- 
tion hail over-run New Zealand. It is quite probable that this 
migration eastward from Ami hail thrown the Papuan race 
upon the shores o| Australia, New Zealand and the Fiji islands; 
that the islands of Micronesia were inhabited from Asia may 
also be admitted; it is quite probable, however, that these were 



oltKiIN" OK T1IK INDIANS-TIIK PoLYNKSlAS UOUTK. .W 

mixed with that race which farther cast is called the Polynesian; 
hut th.it Polynesia was inhabited from Asia, or that America 
received anv part of her population from Polynesia, is not be- 
lieved to be true. Why in it that the Papuan race, which 
inhabited New Zealand be lore the Polynesian, had not reached 
America: All the islands of Polynesia were inhabited by a 
copper-colored race nearly akin to the Indians of America, and 
very likely the Japanese; between them and the coasts ol Asia 
existed the Papuan and the Micronesians; why did not the 
Polynesians inhabit the larger islands ol Australia, New* (iuinea, 
Hoi neo and the Philippines? Because they did not come east- 
ward from Asia, but reached Polynesia from the lar or eastern 
side. 

The gre.it ocean currents of the equatorial Pacific flow from 
e.is: to weM, from the shore* of America to the shores of Asia. 
The drilt ol the Pacific in the region ol the alleged Polynesian 
route is westward: the prevailing winds are in the same direc- 
tion; no castaway vessel in this region has ever taken but one 
course toward the shores of Asia, h is only by design that 
man could have crossed trom Asia to America in this wide sea 
legion, and the existing well-known natural conditions of wind 
ami current must be changed before we can conceive of such a 
voy.ige being perlorrned, even from one island home to another. 
Not «me iota of evidence has ever been produced to prove one 
siuh voyage; no record ol one such exists; neither by accident 
nor lie sign has an instance occurred whereby a Polynesian has 
been involuntarily or otherwise thrown upon the American 
oust. The Polynesian theory exists without any evidence to 
support it. 

The nortr ern equatorial current of the Pacific takes its rise 
oil the coast ol Lower California, and joining force with the 
grc.il Humboldt current from up the west coast of South 
America, slows in a broad, resistless equatorial flood half around 
the \\<>rlii, until striking the shores ol Asia it divides, one 
bunch being driven northward past the green hills of Japan, oil" 
whuh it receives the ancient Japanese name "Kuro-schiwo," or 
"K.uk v.reani." Thence flowing eastward just south of the 
Aicu::.m inland* until it reaches the coasts of America, it sweeps 
south u.trd pa*t the tir-clad hills ol Washington and Oregon to 
jo:n the equatorial current again oil the coasts of California — a 
m-i : i."'.:c oiean current on its never ceasing halt world circuit. 
I: :n to :h'N warm ocean river that we are to look for the expla- 
nation «-t :he r elat sonship between the New Zealander and the 
H.::iia oi our Northwest coast. It is this great highway we 
tiui>*. examine lor evidences of migration. Ilere is ollered at 
leas: .1 reasonable probability of a route of travel; here is a 
means by which, without compass or volition on the part of 
man, the smallest islands of the broad Pacific may have been 
populated. It were only necessary for the voyager to preserve 



:*34 THK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

Nuuhioa and Tahuata, two ol the Marquesan Islands; Opolu 
and Savaii, belonging to the Samoan group; and Tahiti, with 
others in that neighborhood, frequently occur, besides the names 
of headlands and towns in these islands. These songs also make 
allusions to voyages from Oahu and Kauai to islands tar west." 
— "Hawaii," Hopkins, p. Si. 

We know that the Hawaiian* went to Tahiti; the New 
Zealanders were emigrants from Tahiti; the conclusion seems 
to he lair that tar-distant New Zealand was peopled by cast- 
away* Irom Asia, via. the "Kuro-shiwo" and Hawaii. 

While the records, traditions, songs and history give many 
instances ol" in ig rat inns westward, in Polynesia none are men- 
tioned toward the rising sun. Kvcrv tradition goes with the 
ocean drift- -westward; the migrations go west and south, hut 
never to the east. There is n«»t a single known exception to 
this rule. 

11 ll the man h ol mankind w.is towards the east, and thev 
had .ilreadv .swarmed downwards and peopled the upper con- 
tinent ot America, there would indeed be no ditlicullv in the 
supposition tii.it trom the western shore** men had taken another 
departure .mil reached tin* nearest ol the i>lands ot the Pacific. 
For the trade wind* blow steadily trom the northeast during 
nine months- ot the \ear, and cattle have been conveyed in an 
opt-n boat trom tin- I'ahtornian coa>t to the Hawaiian inlands, 
whiih cm be re.u lied in .1 lew da\s. So that either accident or 
a desire to make maritime discoveries, might have thrown upon 
the shores ot Hawaii the iicw ol a lost canoe or a more organ- 
i/ei! band ol emigrants." 



4, Kilis, however, and his misMunarv associates, never heard ot 
a c.i::oe \u\.ige made to the east ward, though thev knew in- 
M.uii e* ot canoes be:ng 1 ml two i»r three weeks ,it mm, ami 
arriving at plates ^ikj «»r /*ni nr.ies in dneit ii>tarue Irom their 
starting point." 'Hawaii" Hopkins, pp. ''5-'- 

••Miiis' .ihm-i lion has i-een already quotco, th.it ol many stray 
c.uioes reaching T.ihiti lr«'m eastern, unknown :sl.mds t the voy- 
ages have aiwavs been in .1 westerly liirci'.iun; the missionaries 
never he. ird lit one towards the sunrise. ISecchv says: "All 
have agreed as to the manner in which these migrations be- 

^^ r^ 

tween the islands h.ive been a dected, and some lew instances 
have aituaiii been met with: but they have hi: en in one direc- 
tion only, ami have r a? her lavorec. the opinion ot migration 
Irom the eastward." N.urat:vc ol a Voyage, Vol. 1, p. 2\2.) 

•*1 l.iwaii" 1 lopKins, p. j ,. 

The Humboli:: 1 iinen!, a broad ocean stream, springs trom 
the A:)tau ( .:i region, and pours its cold water* northward off 
the west tu.ht i.t South America, until in the neighr*>rhoori of 
tiie eiju ator ;' turns westward and Incomes a part ol the im- 



OICIGIN OF THK INDIAN8-THK roLYNKSlAXlROlTK. S» 

mense equatorial belt of waters flowing ever westward, and 
pouring tietween the Polynesian Islands toward the shores of 
Asia. M A dozen of the crew ol the clipper ship "(Sofitrn /./jpA/," 
burned in the South Pacific about 1865, just west of Cape Horn, 
reathed Hawaii in eighty-one days, in a whale boat under sail, 
ami would have run upon a reel at Lcopahoihoi, but tor natives 
who swam oil* to rescue these exhausted people, all ot whom 
survived." "Origin ol Chinese Race," Brooks, 1S76. 



A castaway from Kaster Island, or the west coast of South 
Arneiua, would have Ik* en certainly thrown into the equatorial 
cm unt, and drifted weMward into Polynesia, while owing to 
the Japan current, natives Irom the west coast ol North Amer- 
ica. <>r :iit- Sandwich Islands, would have been carried in the 
>ame dm 1 linn. It is nearlv impossible, certainly improbable, 
l«»t natives irmii either Ka>ler Island or Hawaii to reach the 
Anu-fU'an coasts, except bv design. No such a design has 
been shown, .ind no Mich a tail has Iven known. No in- 
stance is on recoil! ol such a vnvage bv a Polvnesian. No fact 
v\i<* upon which to b.iM* such a cl.iiin. From Kaster or 
I law .i::.tu Inland** to the American coasts is about the same dis- 
t.iMu* as Hum Ireland to New Foundland; alx)ut the same 
n l ^:,u U-s ni wind am! current prevent the voyages, then why 
claim v miii ii more tor the naked Polynesian in his light canoe, 
then 1,111 iv accorded to the hardy Norse viking in his many 
oared gre.it war vessel. 

I challenge Prolessor Thomas to present one lact in support 
nt hi* P<»i\nrs;a theory; one instance in which the voyage Irom 
P.>!\ncs!a '•• America was successfully made; one castaway 
!r><m Kaster «»r Hawaiian Islands thrown on American shores; 
«-ne \n\.ige in these continents Irom the Pacific Isles by natives, 
either by .icciilent or design; or one tradition, custom, habit or 
language pre^eving prool ol such a fact. The North Pacific 
ti.rrcnt is the migration route over wnich that grandest of 
races, the Mongolian, sent out, either by accident or design, its 
people to occupy the continents of America; over this same 
muv the islands n! the Pacific were inhabited; viewed in the 
l:g:.t •■! taits these matters seem almost sell-evident and scarcely 
admit m v ontradiction. 

Tac«irr.a, Mav V.h, lSo.i. 



3M TIIK AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 



ON CERTAIN MORPHOLOGIC TRAITS OF AMERICAN 

LANGUAGES. 

Bv Dami i. (i. Bkisius, M. I), LL.I)., ILSC 

Tin 1 faculty of speech, the power to convey thoughts by ar- 
ticulate and intelligible sounds, is the most pregnant product of 
the psychical nature of man. For that reason the study of lan- 
guage ranks among the first of the anthropologic sciences. 

Its most apparent value is as a means of classifying tribes and 
peoples, grouping them under linguistic stocks, ami from this 
deducing consanguinity, descent and intermixture. This "genc- 
alogic" >tudy of languages, as it has been called, is, however, 
not that which offers the most valuable results. A given lan- 
guage or dialect rellcits not merely the general mode of expres- 
sion of the human spi cics, but particularly that of the tribe or 
people who speak it. It reveals their way of looking at things. 
the reach of their thoughts, the accuracy of their j Receptions, 
their capauty tor grasping the true am! the beautiful in the 
world around them, in other words, all that makes up their 
ethnic psychology. 

'Mure is a fixed relation between the idiom and the ideas of a 
people. They sink or rise to. -ether. As a little- known but 
thoughtful French writer.de Scnanc-'Uit, expressed it eaily in 
this rentuiy: "La langue, et l'esprit «iu pcuple ijui la parlc, 
s 'avan cent de concert." 

Like other faculties, language stand* 111 direit relation to or- 
ganism, that is to lompiexity ot bMin-structure, t spei sally to 
the thud tioiital com oiiition. to the etteient nerves, to the ti>n.;ue 
and the v<>c.d • h<»r<K. Foi th.it reason, it is propel to study it 
as an organism itseil. subiiit to the same laws .is other products 
• •I" of. .iiii/.itinn. Ilus point is so loiistantly misunderstood and 
overlooked b\ n:< lelv academic Iin-.'uists, that I must expand it 

a htt:. . 

Like othei organized entities, each language is a link :n an 
end'.i s«^ » I1.1: 11 Ivii h !mk :s inmju-tc in it^eil. yet always mo- 
bile. ch.in.:< !.:1. trending toward ln.i: r . r l-wer t«irnis. the high- 
est i.irists tiairs •! its i.m-hip with th« !"««•>!; the lowest mav 
ha\e !.n_u!!ii s :;ni ■;u.i!i-i I »v the highest, m taili. the laws of 
pr- ie--i\e and n trogrcssivr trar.sturmation are forever active. 
by i:!;:- r- ■ ptib'.e ;.;:a«!at;«-n- \w ;mss troin "ii'- to the other, only 
by ■/■ rural .ivi-r.r:« s cm we in- as .re the relative values •>( tho^e 



•■ :V« 



MORPHOLOGIC TRAITS (>K AMKKK'AS LASGUA<iKS. 337 

nearly related. All this is what we find everywhere in the or- 
ganic world. The bird is but a development of the reptile, the 
m.in of the brute. In many faculties and senses the brute is 
superior to the man. the reptile to the bird; hut only singular 
ignorance or jK.Tvers.ity could question which is the higher in 
the scale 

( >n the other hand, language must not t>e regarded as a pas- 
sive product of the human intellect, a mere tool or convenient 
invention. So far from that, it is a powerful agent in moulding 
the intellect, in stimulating or depressing it, in endowing it with 
wings with which to soar aloft, or in binding it with fetters and 
tethers to the material clods. Those peoples who arc born to 
the modes of thought and expression enforced by some languages 
can never forge to the Iront in the struggle lor supremacy; they 
are fatally handicapped in the race tor the highest life. 

This depends partly on the |>overty of the lexicography of 
such languages, their lark of terms to express ideas and the 
difficulty nt forming such; but much more on the manner with 
which the Ingical proportion as framed in the mind has to be 
p;t into sound, that is. into words and sentences. It is obvious 
th.it tin language which permits the main idea, with its relations 
an I iii-uiitic itions, to be expressed parallel to the sequence in 
winch i! arises m thought, without needless accessories, yet with 
..'; :::a! air ncrded. is more stimulating than one which burdens 
ill- -.i«-a w:th e xt raiv -• his suggestions, or leaves unexpressed those 
w in- h aii in \ essarv. 

• 

I ::«■ investigation of these fundamental traits of language be- 
liHi > t » tisr m ience ot linguistic morphology: and it is to some 
a -;■»■» !s ..f tins, as applii d to American tongues, to which 1 would 
now ..•»".. your attention. 

I":-.!- firs! i!:s*:ni tion between languages in their morphology 
i. I»:.wr-i those winch have, and those which have not, true 
/: imriutiiM" f. this. Those which have such, express the rela- 
t ■■;-■■! the elements of .i sentence by sounds which are employed 

• : :: :s purpose only, and have no indc;»endcnt signification. 
I "i.rv ire purely grammatical elements, and are what are called 

" :: ,: i !: «ns. S :ch are the Aryan and the Semitic languages. 
N ■ •: i ■ n e A:::er * aii. Mon.'o'.ian or 1'olvncsian language dc- 
:■■ ' p "i ti .-■ :nfl'-i 'i-ins. They are. therefore, what are called 

" :■ !■■■.!■ -s" las: '.i i.,i'\ 

I:. ■!■ vji cn bv which such tongues make amends for the 
i •■:::;■' : h part:.;', absence of inflections are various. Some, 
!:'■ 1" .:mrse an.'! Chinese, de|>cnd mainly on the position ot the 

• !' nn-v.s .<• ::,e sentence with relation to each other; others 
.:"!a» h affix'-'. to the main stems, presenting thus an analogy to 
uiv ■ : i oris, b .t differing from them because these affixes are 

■•■Jidi-nt stems, ami lastly, others again aim to blend together 
• >mc ' r all of tiie elements of the sentence and express them 



• ■ ■ • 



33* THK AMKRICAN ANTKjl'AKIAN. 

as one united whole. This last mentioned process is called 
Incorporation, and by several eminent linguists, as Humboldt, 
1'ott and Stcinthal, it has been asserted to be the characteristic 
trait of American languages. 

They have never claimed that it is peculiar to these tongues, 
or that n is their only mode of sentence- con struct ion; on the 
contrary. Humboldt explicitly stated that traces of all forms of 
sent i-nct --const i net inn can be discovered in nearly every language 
of the world; and that it is only the decided preponderance of 
one or the other methods which the morphologist has to show. 

It is nothing to the purpose, therefore, that opponents of this 
opinion point out traces of Incorporation in other idioms; or 
show that other methods are found in American languages. All 
that is not merely conceded l>y the morphologist; it is his avowed 
doctrine that Mich must be the case. 

There is a gre.it deal of ignorance among American and 
French writers as to what Incnrpnr.it ion really is, its aims, its 
methods and its results. I«\>r that reason, and because I concur 
with those who consider it the leading morphologic trait of the 
aboriginal tongues of this continent. I desire to define these 
teat u res with precision. 

Its aim, .is I have already stated, is to Mend together some or 
all of the elements of the sentence in one complex. Phonetically, 
this is accomplished by the processes ol assimilation ami amalga- 
mation, which are the two degrees of the blending of sounds; 
and by those of agglutination and infix. ition, the latter of which 
may be considered the typical development of the incorporative 
process. 

'Die principal grammatic procedures by which Incorporation 
is accomplished are as follows: 

I. The expression of the idea Heing.th.tt is, the nominal, is 
subordinated to the expression of the idea of Action, that is, the 
verbal 

This is the cardinal prim iple <.l incorporative languages, and 
it finds its expressn nis :n a vanety of modes, snme ijuite unex- 
pei ted. Fp-i juently and Typically, the objective relation is con- 
tained within the verbal Inrm, either ducctly, by inserting the 
object between the sale- ct and the v<ih;or indirectly, bv the 
insi rlion ot a pronoun wh:ch stands in an appoMtive relation to 
the obiect expressed elsewhere. 

Not less typiia! is where the temporal and modal augments of 
the v». rh, one or both, precede a subject-prefix or follow a sub- 
ject suffix. Hy s::i h a process the subject itself is made a part 
of the action, limited by the ideas of time anil manner which be- 
long to the action alone, and thus loses its :ndc|Ktulcnt being. 

Wli.it is very curious to observe is that this principle is per- 
sistently earned <»ut in those languages uhich, strictly speaking. 
have no verb at all, as for instance, the Maya dialects. In these. 



Moitl'MOLOftir TKAITKUF AMKKK'AX LANiil'AOKs. XM 

the idea of action is expressed by verbal nouns under possessive 
relations, .mil we jHrrceivc «i tendency to a complete submergence 
ol the agent in the action. The subject is grammatically 
isolated, an inseparable possessive pronoun doing duty for it. 
Thus, the phrase " I know the road." would have to be. ''the 
load, my knowing:" or again, "the dog bites my cat," would be 
"my i at. the dog, his biting." In such an example we see the 
inseparable possessive prefix united to the substantive-object and 
followed l>y the substantive-subject, which is a verbal noun. 
Such a sentence, whether it coalesces or not into one phonetic 
complex, is built essentially on the incorporate plan, and it is a 
typical example of what is found in very many American 
languages. 

.? The presence of inseparable pronouns and inseparable 
i lass Mym^ particles in a language indicates the tendency to in- 
corporative speech. 

Hoth these are found in the vast majority of American 
languages. They are seen in the possessive prefixes of the 
teniis lor relationship, and in those for parts of the body, and in 
the s-fVixes to the numerals when counting particular classes of 
■■biects. and in many other connections. Inasmuch as they 
\\i Id together ideas which m their nature are distinct, they are 
• li ar expressions of the tendecy to incorporation of sentence 

i li meilts. 

; A well marked trait of the incorporative tendency is seen 
:n the composition and derivation of verbs and verbals by the 
process of infixation. by which significant particles, or more or 
li -s assimilated wonN, or new phonetic elements, modify the 
tne.iuuu: i»t the theme. 

I here are very few American languages which do not exhibit 
this phenomenon, and often in a striking degree. The Kechua 
grammar of I )r. Anchorcna gives over fou modifications of the 
infin-tsve of the verl> "to love," formed by the infixation of par- 
ts* !■. s, i .r tin- mollification of the vowels of the theme. The Chi>c- 
:aw orV.rs a series of modifications of the verbal by changes in its 
cii:!-f vowel. Nor are >uch instances confined to verbs and ver- 
bals. Sometimes a possessive pronoun is intercalated within the 
no -;n itself, as m the Mosquito language; and any word may be 
liable to modification by infixation. Sometimes, again, what is 
na'.ly infixation. has merely the appearance of vocalic substitu- 
tion, a- in what is called "the change" in the Algonquin verb, 
wh: Ji K.ioul de la (irasseric has ingeniously explained as "dis- 
„; ;i-c;! infixation." 

4. The presence of the incorporative tendency is seen in the 
relations of the clauses of a compound sentence. Kach is merely 
super fh lally attached to the others, and the whole does not pre- 
sent grammatical dependence and subordination. The logical 
se*j :i n< e is expressed cither by position or material words. 



340 THK AMKRICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

There arc no true relative pronouns, those doing duty as such 
being in fact demonstratives. 

In conclusion I may say a few words on the effects of incor- 
poration on the morphology of language. 

1. The first effect is a strong tendency to isolation of the sen- 
tence elements. This seems paradoxical, but it is very obvious, 
even in the highly developed Nahuatl. The parts of the sen- 
tence which are not included in the verbal stand alone and uncon- 
nected. The consequences of this art shown in an advanced 
degree in the Maya and the Othomi languages, where the logi- 
cal connection has sunk almost to the level of the dialects of 
Farther India, which depend on position alone. 

2. The second is a deficient development of case. There are 
few examples, if any, of a declension of nouns in American lan- 
guages. What is called the genitive, is an adessive or a posses- 
sive; the dative is an illative or an inessive; the plural is the 
singular with a strengthening augment, or with an affix of mul- 
titude; the gender is an affix of sex. Case relations arc cither 
not expressed, or are expressed by material additions to the stem, 
or particles separate from it. 

3. The third effect is an effort to present each clause of a sen- 
tence in one phonetic complex, that is, as one connected sound. 
Steinthal says of this, that as the Chinese language is, grammati- 
cally speaking, without words, so the Nahuatl is without sen- 
tences, won 1-1 >u ilding has gone so far that it has swallowed 
sentence-building. 

This excessive synthetic tendency has led to what some have 
called the "poly synthesis" of American languages. It is by no 
means essential to the ino>rporative method, as it is^uite p»»ssi- 
sibie lor this t'» proceed by juxtaposition, without assimilation of 
the sentence elements. The psychical process is the same in 
both cases, and this is what is really important in the morpho- 
logic analysis. It is ,1 scn**us blunder to spc.tk o! Incor|>oration 
and iN'Iysynthcsis a* synonymous terms, as d»«es Count von 
Schulinbiir;: in his ri cent work on the Tsi hutischian language 
of the Ninth west coa«t 1'olysynthesis is little more than an 
acudi ntal aspect of the mcurporativr process. As t.ir as the 
external pin -n» t;c loim ■■!" the lan.-ua^c is concerned. ,is I have 
just -hown.th.it jiroiess :• nds ipnte as decidedly toward an 
.in.i!vt:c as toward a synthetic phmn -ticism. 



THE WORSHIP OF THK HAIS UOD. Mi 



THK WORSHIP OF THK RAIN-GOD. 

By Stkphkn I>. Pkkt. 

The worship of rain as one of the ''nature powers" was very 
prevalent throughout the continent of America in pre-historic 
times, and has survived among certain tribes even to the pres- 
ent day. It had its greatest development in the arid regions of 
the interior, and here it still abounds in great force. The sup- 
ply of rain was appreciated in other parts of the country, but 
here it was so much a necessity that the minds of the people 
were constantly exercised about it, and so they made it the one 
clement of their religious ceremonies. It is interesting to study 
the cult and see how many methods of expressing the desire tor 
rain were invented, and to notice the manner in which the rain 
was jKTsomfied and symbolized, and how elaborate the cere- 
monies were which embodied this personification. It appears 
that the rain god was not only personated, but that all the oper- 
ations ot the rain were dramatized and imitated. The other 
nature j>owers, such as the lightning, the cloud, the colors of 
the sky. the four points of the compass, even the sun and moon 
and stars made made subordinate to this, and yet by their combin- 
ation these set off the supremacy of the rain as a great divinity. 

We propose therefore to take up the various ceremonies, cus- 
toms ami symbols which prevailed among the so-called "sky- 
worshipers" of the interior, and especially those which consisted 
in the dramatization of the rain. There is, to be sure, a great 
sameness to these ceremonies and customs as practiced by the 
different tribes, yet the variety is sufficient to warrant a descrip- 
tion of each one in turn, for the repetition is found as significant 
as the \anation. The following observations on the rites and 
ceremonies practiced by the aborigines and their significance by 
Mr William Wells Newell arc valuable: I. Tribal, gentile, 
social, religious festivals or dances depend in part on myths 
which arc dramatized in the rites. 2. The rites are performed 
by secret societies, possessing initiations in different degrees, 
which constitute what maybe called mysteries. 3. Of the ritual, 
some portions are intended to be in public, while others arc 
wrapped in secrecy. The manner of the celebration as well as 
the significance of the rites is only comprehended by the initi- 
tiated |>crs«»ns. 4. The dance is performed by masked or cos- 
tumed personages, who enact the part of the divine beings whose 
history is recounted in the myths. 5. The actor was origin- 
ally considered to be identical with the being represented. In 



:UL> THK AMKHICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 

other words, the god, in liis own person appeared on the stage 
ami performed his own history, in characlcri.stic representation. 
The to] lowing also, from Ur. Washington Matthews, on the 
connection between mystery and ceremony, has considerable 
furt'e: "The rite-myth never explains all the symbolism em- 
bodied in the rite, though it may account lor all the important 
aits. A primitive and underlying symbolism which probably 
existed previous In the establishment of the rite, remains unex- 
plained by the myth, as though its existence was taken as a 
m. titer of course and required no explanation. Some explana- 
tion of this foundation symbolism may be found in the "creation" 
and "migration 'myths, or in other early legends of the tribe, but 
-•>met hm}.; remain- unexplained even by these. The wearing of 
masks, however, sriii* lu have had but one significance. The 
per-'ii » Im wear- iJk 1 mask of a god. and ihtsoii it ft him. is. for 
the time beiiv.;, actually that god. The ram ceremonies gen- 




erally consisted in a dramatization of the rain, under the figure 
ot an immen-e snake, who is supposed to represent the rain-god 
and his effieicnev in bringing the needed supply of water, as 
we!! as his influence over the different crop-. The drama, how- 
ever, combined the migration mvth and the creation myth with 
the jxip'ilar conception ol the source of the rain, and these made 
the variation in the ceremonies almost e.piat to the myths which 
were embodied in them " 

[ < ine of the mo-t interesting of the drama- is that which is 
called the "-creen drama," a- the screen hear- an important part 
in it A description of this ceremony has (teen given by J. W. 
Kewkes h consists mainly in the carrying of various figures 
or effigies ot -nake- from the village on the mesas to a pool in 
the valley In-low anil back again to the kivas, thus making them 
repre-ent the rain cloud which rises over the mountains Mid 
drops it- refreshing shower- u|nm the mesas. 

At th ■ liegmning of this ceremony, the young men brought 
quantities o| -and and placed i: in htixes, moistened it. and planted 
in the s.irt ! kerne! i of corn ■■/ different colors, yellow, blue, deep 



THE WORSHIP OK TUB RA1NUOD. 



nil. white, black, speckled and pink. After a few days they 
unrolled the screen on which were sun emblems and openings; 
(hey then took several serpent figures or effigies, placed them 
near the Tire These serpent effigies were made with protruding 
eyes stuffed with seeds, a head made of a gourd, a collar made of 
corn husks and feathers, and a projecting horn on the top of the 
head. The body was hollow and so arranged that the arm of 
the dancers could be thrust into them, and so make them move 
about as if they were alive. The serpents wire thrust through 
tin- sun disks in the screen, sacred meal placed before them and 
each dipped its head as if eating the meal. The life-like struggle 
of tht- serpent was imitated in a surprising manner. A proces- 
sion was l.irrnd in which nineteen men. some with trumpets, 
other-, hewing the effigies, and others with pipes and a slow 





>lir t. /-». Xm 



match and trays of sacred meal, who proceed down the mesa to 
a pi»il where they place the effigies at the edge of the water on 
the east and north sides, and meal and feathers on the west side. 
After various ceremonies, such as lighting pipes and smokinc a 
lew jiuffs to the sun, repeating prayers and trumpeting to the 
water, p-mring water, dipping the serpent's heads into the edge 
oi the water, sprinkling meal, they again take up the effigies and 
ascend the mesa, g j down to the kiva and thrust the struggling 
serpents through the screen which has upon it the sun symbols, 
making the serpent effigies dance to the measure of a song which 
i> sung by a chorus. 

Iteforc the screens were rows of sand cones, in which corn 
plants were inserted, making them resemble rows in a com field. 
The serpent* were made to dance over the cones. These repre- 
sented the rain-god as arising from the water, floating in a cloud 
and hovering over the corn fields. The dances which followed 
earned out the same thought. In these the men called dtsk-hurl- 
ers came out from the "corn mound" kiva and the "oak mound" 
kiva. and distributed baskets among the spectators. A "kiva 
chief planted a small spruce tree in the court and suspended 



:I44 T11K AMKKIL'AS ANTJyi'AIUAN. 

upon its houghs numerous ornaments, an J at its base blue "prayer 
plumes." In the screen the four larger disks were called sun pic- 
tures and the two small ones moon pictures.* The panels on the 
upper part were surrounded with rainbows with lightning between 
each panel. The snake-like figures rising from the clouds are 
thunder bolts; the birds surmounting the conventional clouds 
represent the water birds; two figures in the center represent the 
divinities called sky-gods, or "the heart of the sky;" two fig- 
ures in the outer panels represent the female companions of these 
sky-gods. 

These were symbolic of the rain-god and his power over the 
winds, but there were many common articles used by the Zums 
which represented the "world-quarters," rainbow and lightning 
They sometimes decorated garments with the stepped figure, sym- 




bolizing the clouds, -oinelimc* with scrolls, which symbolized the 
winds. These scroll*- resemble tin scrolls .mil antes made in the 
sands of the desert by the wind drivin;; weed stalks or red 
top grass rmind ami round, for I hey believe liirw -anti marks are 
the tracks .,t the whirl-umd-god. flny .il-n i It- c orate their 
pottery with ciri ular space-, wlneli resemble the sun disk, and in 
the -.pairs draw figures in the form ol stepped pyramids and 
other curious designs, always careful to leave open spaces or out- 
lets to each ornament. These "terraces in the sky honions are 
the mythic ' .men 'lit sacred pi. ices i.f the space-. 

The stepped i!.;ure w.is perhaps the > on sequence of basket 
weaving, but Im-cmic a symliol t.i the -.upt tsIiIihiis people. The 
lifted line of the mountain was, ,i ladder In the regions ot the 
sky-gods, which ua- heralded by the thaildi-r god at the rising 
and the setting sun. and so afforded a graphic symbol of the 



THK WORSHIP OF THK HAlS-GOl). 345 

'sacred sjaccs." The figure when applied to the pottery by the 
supple hand of a Zuni woman, was believed to be endowed with 
a spirit which bore the title of "made being" for whose ingress 
.mil exit the encircling lines were left open. 

i i . • The ancient Pueblo medicine jar also contains the symbols 
of the sky-g«»ds and the rain, and other nature powers. There are 
circles and several spaces on this jar, and in these the "ancient 
place ot the >j*aces. A; the region of the sky-gods, B; the cloud 
lines C. and the falling rain D. These arc combined and de- 
picted ti> symbol i/c the storm, which was the object of the 
worship in the ceremonial** to which the jar was an appurtenance.* 
See Figs, i. J and 3. 

«2 . . Another symbol representing the rain, storm, cloud, and 
lightning is very common among the ancient Pueblos. It is 
wovn into the garments and painted upon the pottery and is 
prominent in their sand paintings. It consists of three arches 
with a horizontal space below with a zig-zag arrow above, and 
perpendicular lines for the rain. See Fig. 3. 

1 ;.» The Zimi prayer- meal bowl illustrates this conception. The 
b«. w! i> the emblem of the earth, — "our mother." (Fig. 4.) We 
lir.iw !nod and drink from it. The rim of the bowl is round, but 
aN,» terraced, as is the horizon, which is terraced with mountains 
whe:i» t rise the clouds. The handle of the bowl is also a symbol 
ot the rainbow, as it is arched over the terraces and painted with 
the ramh-»w figure. The two terraces on either side of the 
handle represent the "ancient sacred spaces." The decorations 
« t the bowl are significant. As the tadpole frequents the pool in 
spring time it has been adopted as the symbol of the spring 
rains, the dragon fly hovers over j>ools in summer, and typifies 
the rams of summer, the frog maturing later symbolizes the 
rams «»t the later season; the feather-headed serpent also typifies 
the water and the rain. Sometimes the figure of the sacred 
butterfly replaces that of the dragon fly. which symbolizes the 
beneficence of summer, for the Zunis think that the butterflies 
ami birds bring the warm season from the land of everlasting 
summer \ 

It is a singular circumstance that a jar or vase has been found 
among the mounds which contains a figure of a plumed serpent 
which is furnished with wings, the lines on the wings being in 
the form of arches and those on the body being in the form of 
terra*, es or notched passages, the spaces being left open as they 
were «»n the Zuni pottery. Was this vase a specimen which was 
brought by some wandering Zuni into the Mound -builders* ter- 
ritory, or was it the product of the Mound-builders' skill, male* 
ing the ornament represent the ancient myths which were ex- 
tant '* It would seem as if the figure represented the "water 

• >. r \ou.t Krp-.rt I H-rca- 1 F.thoolofi. t%*j aad t**v article b> Frank M. Cosh- 
ug ;• ii .. » » Miuv He»a« *od Face*. l>y Klicn K. Enwrtuo. p. *. 



.1*1 TDK AMKKJCAS ANTIgCAklAN. 

divinity" <>r liif "rain spirit,'' though it is the only specimen 
where the serpent, which was always among the Mou ml -bui liters 
.1 water-god, is figured with wings and with step-lines, 

II. A rain ceremony occurs at the initiation of children. There 
was a tradition among the ancient /.unis that their ancestors 
migrated from a distant point, but on their way they were obliged 
to cross a stream, and in crossing the children fell into the stream 
and became transformed into frogs, ducks, water-spiders, snakes 
and butterflies, and were transferred to a kiva which was situ- 
ated under the water in a spirit lake. After their arrival in the 
village certain supernatural messengers were sent to this village 
under the water, who found tii.it the children were again trans- 




lornied int-i »ii]>ern,ttui.r I 

ill. lik.ne- ill ihedii. ! d 

were alter that tune m>i-h: 

the A"«e.» They dm 

"waters >>f rvn lasting 

pa-sing through the i 

which ha- tour ili.imln 

f.-r rain, making their 

by them the plume-tick- are st ill to the -ame great god. The 

offering- .if plume- to the sun are -n numemu- that at night the 

'Sacred K. Mil .an l> ■■ -cen filled with th-- feather-, for the "S.-ul 

of the Twines' travel- over the road j:i-t as the -oul from the 

body travel- from /urn to the -pint lake. 



!!■_:- and had Liken u|i»n thi m-elvcs 
untie- nl the /ui:i. ' The children 
ipeil as ancestral ;;<id-,and aerc called 
11 the depth- of the lake, where are 
appine--." and are reached only by 
lor .if the mo'iRtain by a passageway 
in it The K'i:> repeat the prayers 
l.i t>> ita. and 



,isu, 



THK WORSHIP OF THK RAlS-ttO". 347 

One o! the most important characters in Zuni mythology, i» 
called the Kot/o. This divinity visited the spirit lake, where 
is the home of the Koto, and entered the kiva and viewed those 
assembled there, but found that the "plumed serpent," whose 
home is in a hot spring, was not there. He accordingly sent 
tw»» of the Koto called Soo-tt tt\ for the plumed serpent Ko-/o- 
u'tt-st. They soon appeared, for they did not travel upon the 
earth but by the underground waters that |>assed from the spring 
to the spirit lake. t'pon their arrival, the Kak-lo (tribal 
divinity » issued his commands, that certain of the ••children-an- 
cestors," whom he designated as the Sa-/a-no bi-va t should go to 
the north, west, south, east, the heavens and the earth, to procure 
cereals tor the Zuni, and ordered that the serpent should carry 
these with water to the Zunis. (Ashisi) and tell them what to 
do with the seeds. He then visited the Zunis, instructed the 
people regarding the children-ancestors and told them that the 
boys must be made memliers of the Koto socictv. 

Such is the myth which lies at the basis of the ceremony of 
initiation and which explains the different parts of it, but the 
true MgninVance of the drama as a personified account of the 
ram ;„;od is better shown by the ceremony itself, for in these the 
actors both personate the gods and the operations of nature in 
the pi-it'ess oi rain making. The first actor is the representative 
til tlu i hie! god. Kittfo. who is the heralder of the coming of 
the plumed serpent. Ko fo-zcit-si % and may be regarded as the 
personification of the vind or cloud that advances before a rain 
storm He arrives at the village and divides his time between 
tin- kivas which represent the cardinal points, the zenith and the 
n. i l*.r. and gives the history of the Koto and the gathering of 
tin cereals of the earth. The next actors who arrive upon the 
si . ne are the impersonators of the Koto, "child ancestors," who 
prepare pi u me sticks and get ready for the initiation. After 
them ten mm who personate the rain clouds, Koytmcshi % on the 
mountain-, pass through the village and inquire for the boys 
who an- to be initiated. The Sa-fa mo-bi-ya of the north, west, 
south. < ast. heavens and earth, and a number of younger brothers, 
who are the persotiators of the cardinal points and the bearers of 
th«- plumed sei|>cnt or ram cloud, also appear on the occasion. 
Thev wear masks of different colors. Those from the north. 
yellow, from the west, blue; from the south, red; from the cast, 
whiti . earth, hlai.k; the heavens, all colors.* These take the 
plumed serj>ent, which is the emblem of the rain cloud, and is 
accordingly • is stated below) painted black above and with 
white stars below, to the "kiva of the earth." and here leave the 
imagr. This kiva is already decorated with two serpents which 



• 



l'i • * tie, .* » iir4o.pt. on of AVi.»*i/«. The terpen! It made of hide, hit 
. rr. % (4 ntr 1 »!.;tc. !.:« b*. k biark. and ;• cot c red with while stars, the tall cad of 
:..»'« i ' \ v r ft r«t. »h • constantly blows through a tare* thell. making the found 
' i< ; if-mti l? r *c* ru-<nttct 



34s THK AMKIMCAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

extend around the inner wall of the room. At sunrise the actors 
go to this kiva arid present to the image, whose head is seen 
projecting through an opening in a side wall, the plumed sticks, 
which symbuli/e their pravcrs, and ears of corn, which symbolize 
the o! Meets which the\ want blessed. 

The ceremonies for the initiation of the children follow this. 
These consist. f>r the must part, in pouring water through the 
body • if the serpent into sacn-d bowls, and afterward pouring 
different kind- ff grain and seed into the blankets, which are 
held before its mouth Another part of the ceremony is that 
which has regard to the s.u redness of fire .is well as ot rain. In 
this tlie representative of the war god sit near the fire altar, 
which js in the center ot th»- kiva. and teed the sacred flames. 
The actors, as they enfer the kiva from above, turn a somerset 
over the file, by placing the head upon a stone .slab, which 
stands near thr tire. and thro win:; their feet from the opening of 
the ki\a to the fl mr bevnd the lire. Thev also pass out of the 
kiva by a somerset. piacmg the head upon the slab, and so go out 
of tin- opening feet foremost. 

These singular cenniomes are kept alive by certain secret 
societies, some ot tin members personating the mountain 
divinities. A'.- ir tf.'i *.';:. other* personating the winds, who are 
the cloud hearers, nth- rs per-on.itmg the divinities of the cirdi- 
nal points, still others tin- thunder g-d.and the lightning. K ich 
of thi'se societies h.is a kiva Im itst .!, but the kix.i" represent the 
different houses of the ^U' .mi have svmhois which i orrespond. 

It appear-* from this i i ien.on\ that the children ••! the /uni 
were biought to the \\oidi:p •■! the ram god m <>nnec!ion with 
the othi r n.iture powers it t!ie:i miviiii'i ti»n. and that there was 
a supernatural air throw n over all the oper at 1 - »n> ••! the ram-cloud, 
which m i ; si have mijinsvd them lhio:.;h the i« m.under of the;r 
life It would be impossible lor a ch! I to piss through this 
scene, in which the chief members • •! the trsbe were the actors, 
an<! m which his own relatives and gndtaiii! r» were engaged, 
without leehng that it was tin m.is» -acred »-\ent in his hie. and 
yet the whole interest was t -in* entr.ite i :p.u; the part which 
the lain -god l\.u\ :n the -.icred dram. I 

III The ■' solstitial" «.erMUoii:a!s i.; thi /urns also represent 
the wor>h p «it the ram „ T od and diamat /•- the eiie^t ot the rain 
iip>in the «. - -i 11 i fop. I h--se hive rut n ,|-s ribed by I>r J \V. 
Kewkis ||. s a\ s lloth s,i.s:.,-fN are mukei epochs in the 
/uri: ■ a • n i n .old are cei- ;»' ate-! by appr<>p!iati ceremonials. 
The m,". i* tile apprit.i :; •*' th* sinumer solstice, is watched with 
t.art : e. :\\ jinest • ■! th' s :n. wh • determines the tune bv notic- 
in r ; th-- li/.h* -h:n - % . at s ,nr v thro-. — li a depression m the 
!iifu ai t.i:us . i ..-d t!:;- . ; . i t « ■ « »! /uni. " across the gnomon or 
sun pn t. whi.'i | r •* a tew teet above the mm! on the plain of 
/iiii: mi 'iieii ami" iit * s the timr t> r the rain dances to begin. 




SACRED ALTAR OF THE HAM-ZRAU PONQ-VA, 

m.n i Surtcli nl ihe Walpti. dccoraicd with the fotlo*4a( nt 



■r l»n.t 1 T«p*td in 

, Ifimr * nk. rii« i..p [»■ rrpiw 



j| oi lt|h" 



■ ob|«lB ■ 



* I cliche. n-ViMBf llthtnlno- 

■ Cutncl ol Ikfhtnlra. 11 -Mt«1c iptrt] fttlchc, nltod 
■ " ■ " Loot liffctalHg which pcxInlB Uw ci — 



* *ocWtT. temud * 



THK WORSHIP OF THK RAIN <iOD. 349 

The first of the solstitial rain dances is the most important, but 
it in preceded by a singular ceremony, which is piobably designed 
to imitate the e fleet of the pouring rain, but is really a burlesque 
rather than a serious ceremony. It is called "the ducking of the 
clowns.*' The clowns are persons who wear peculiar mud-head 
mask** Am\ who march single file under the walls of the pueblos. 
While they march the women and girls stand on the roof of the 
pueblo with jais full oi water and pour it upon their heads, thus 
completely drenching them. A very singular ceremony occurs 
about this time. In this the dancers are seen on the hills south- 
west of the pueblo. 

There seems to have l>een three classes of dancers and three 
kiinK of dances. The most important were the Koko, who 
wcie the intercessors for ram. These wore masks with heavy 
beards . •!" horse -hair and carried turtles that were said to have 
been gathered at the sacred lake. They were painted with zig- 
zag markings said to be rain symbols, anil had upon their legs 
rattii «» made of small hoofs and turtle shells. Some of them had 
heimtts, nn which were figures ot the sun »um\ crescents and 
oth< r symbolic devices. These represent the beings called Koko % 
who are supposed to ine in some far away region. They 
appio.ich tiu- village a little afti r sundown and repair to one of 
the kiva>; the squaws hie up the street with bowls full ol food 
and pre-ent it at the skylight o\ the kiva to the hungry Koko 
bei"W. A boy who personified the god of fire accompanied the 
proctss'un. Over his shoulder he carried a qaiver and in his 
ham! a ricry wand His breast was ornamented with shell neck- 
lave-; hr m<»\cd the fire wand back and forth as if it were incense. 

Another dance is named Irom those who bear tablets with three 
upright projections, each ornamented with a feather and gaudily 
painted with figures in the form of crescents and bird*. Their 
he.i« Is wrre wholly covered with cedar boughs; around the neck 
were strings of shells made of turquoise and coral. These tablets 
Acre ali of them symbolic of the rain-cloud and the lightning. 

The ceremonials for rain are continued during the month of 
August and culminate in acorn dance, as the corn is now ripening. 
It is fallowed by a very ancient dance called O-to-na-wey. In 
this A'.» u mt-sht (ancient builders) appear as clowns earning a 
great abundance of cedar boughs. The final ceremony was a 
procession of the priests of the bow, who visited the shrines and 
placet! prayer plumes in them. Here then we have the rain 
ccr« -monies m which the sun at the solstices, according to the 
calendar, and the zig-zag lightnings, the fire, various animals and 
birds, objects of nature, cedar boughs and shells were personated, 
all nature being drawn upon; but the effect of the rain was a 
^j>ccial object of the dramatization. 

IV The snake dance is the most remarkable of all the rain 
remomes. This dance has been often described and its ghastly 



:«0 THK AMKKKWS ANTIQUARIAN. 

scenes depicted, but its significance is poorly understood. It 
was, however, nothing more nor less than a rain ceremony and 
differed from all other* only in that live snakes were used instead 
of snake effigies. ( hie ceremony was practiced by the Moquis or 
ilopis at their village by the particular organizations which exist 
there. 

The following is a description given by Mrs, Matilda C Steven- 
son: The "snake dance" is introduced by the male members 
going to the different points of the compass for six days gather- 
ing .snakes and depositing them in four vases. On the fifth day 
a sand painting is made on the floor of the kiv.i; fetiches of the 
cougar and bear are placed near it; the snakes are deposited on 
it and are kept there by the noviti ttcs, who use wands made of 
eagle plumes. The Indians dec). ue that the eagle possesses the 
power to charm the snakes by flying about him and gently 
caressing him with his wings. The out-door ceremony begins 
with the process nf placing the live snake in the mouth of the 
novitiate This is done by the chosen father, who grasps the 
snake ami places it before the lace of the novitiate and prays 
while lie inhales the breath <>l the snake After the snake is put 
in his mouth the noviti. ite dances while .in attendant caresses the 
serpent with the e.ig> plumes. It i- the ambition of the men to 
prove their skill in the handling of the snakes, fur by this means 
they bee- line the greatest juggieis and aiise in the order This 
i eremony is repeated lour days in succession Afterward an all 
in«lht ceremonial occuis m the kiva tor a hii.i'. initiation ot the 
voun/ men — wh» n their powei o? endurance is taxed to the 
extreme 

The !•• ■ nd of this people is interesting, !» i! is to.> '.ong to 
give i omp'-fe In the legend the voyage of .1 young man, a *on 
of the high sham. in. is desi nh'-d. and his visit to the limine o| 
the spider \o:nan He pisses i - • i : r sent in-, is, equidistant fr»m 
one anoti:!'!. ei» !i .1 huge s- rpent. who held his head ere* t and 
hissed .it tin- yo ith. Me enters into .1 rocky cavern, where are 
m.mv vim - m u and mn«i'H> dressed in wiut' 1 blankets Me 
is !i d to !h«- house • •!" tin- "in ■ther • •! the s«.;n" b\ the spider 
wont.tn. wh- lives under th • ;re,it w. iters Me separated the 
•jre.iT wa*« is with h:s I ii^e wand, ami nude a drv load bv which 
he passe. I !<i t!i-- house I Ifi ■■ he saw ail the plume offerings of 
his p-ople •.. the s;n Me was welcomed by the '"mother ol the 
sun." who :■•!■! Imu that the -s.n would return presently. He 
is startled by a .^nat noise, caused by the sun passing through 
the w.i!cri t-i his h-i-:se His ifescent was thr ■ ».i ,;h a huge reed. 
Putting a Toot on either side of the reed, he descended head 
forcmo- 1 ' 



1 • • i •*• ' i : ■■ r. !-« ■.:■«:■ **.i 1 ' ■ «•.»•■■■«■? -irr* : 1 _■■ . r. n !?« 

! •' ■ M I • \| .. 1 • 4 r g •; ■ Q, • if I t »*■. . ' 






;.- ■ ! ■ ■*■ 



TIIK WOKHIII' <>K THK KAl.vUOI). :r>l 

The spider woman said we will go with the sun to his father's 
house in the cast, for the mother's house was in the west. They 
in coni()any with the sun passed under the earth and afterward 
ascended the reed that |>enctratcs the eastern waters, and |>asscd 
<>\cr the world and looked down upon his people in Canon de 
("helly. and could read their hearts and could tell the gocxl from 
the bail. Returning to the earth the youth visited the cavern of 
the snakes and took for his wives the two beautiful daughters. 
< >n reaching his father's house he told him his adventures. Ids 
father then said, "we will have a great feast to the snake and 
antelojK- |>eoplc in sixteen days." To this feast they invited only 
those good in heart. The snake jnrople came in four delicate 
showers, each shower bringing the people; the showers were 
however invisible to the Ilopitu. On the eighth day the people 
danced, holding green corn stalks in their mouth, but the youth 
was hoi niied to find that the snake people had been transformed 
into snakes and that one of his wives had aKo become a snake, 
and th: i! ihiidren became snakes 

The !» gen«! of the flute |>eople differs from that of the snake 
jK-opV. !>■ t it is nevertheless the "foundation myth' for a rain 
an momil It cclibrates the migration of the flute people and 
their • n« ounter with the snake fn-ople and the alliance of the two 
peoph-.* It runs as follows: I^clanguh was the director of 
the flute irnp'i* The music of his flute drives aw.iv the winter 
and r»r-.::gs the summer rains He was the director of many 
jK-'-jKe, aiui hss insignia of office was the crook l\ia-ya a. which 
was -\ mS*. lie «»f longevity, to which were atached four rattles 
• trnam'-nted with fluff v fea. hers of the eagle. The rattles were 
ust .1 by him when he sang for rain, to water his lands. The 
Mings were ^;;ng to the ram people ot the north, the west, the 
south, the i a-t, the zenith and the nadir. The six songs brought 
the r.i:n. at:-! Ixlanguh 1 lew his whistle into the water which 
lei! up n the earth, making it bubble, at the same time praying 
i'T nv-ic ram. ami tin* earth was well watered. 

'1 hen tol'.ows the story of the migrations of the flute people. 
It app» ar> that these migrations were in ot>edience to the direc- 
tion of An orae'e, \. Inch was earned with the people very much 
t- the '\U' was bv the Israelites in their wanderings and the 
sacn d boat among th«* Kgyptians* This oracle was in the shape 
of a jw»r: due altar with a fetich of an ear of corn before it. This 
!tar I.t-!ang;.h erected upon his advent into this world. The 

m was tnmmed with eagle and parrot plumes and had bits of 



.i 



•- \|f. **?r.r;.» t. * a. .r-nt a.« • art.cle l»> Mf J. Walter Fcmke* tn A:iier.cao 



:j.VJ THK AMKKU'AN ANTIQIARIAN. 

abalonc shells and beads of turquoise suspended to it. Wherever 
the people went this oracle was set up. The flute people came 
at last to the home of the snake people and had tour talks with 
them At last Lclatiguh told the director of the snake people 
that he knew "the secret of the rains" and could water the land 
for them. "Well."' said he. "if you can command the rain people 
am! know the secret o! the rains we will he glad to have you 
with 'is. If y«»u know the secret you and your people must he 
first, I and my people second. If you, indeed, know the secret, 
hasten tin-* rain that our land may be watered." "Waif," said 
Leiauguh. "in eight day** I will return to your village, and we 
will go into the kiva." At the end of the ci|d»t days the director. 
I.elanguh. n-tu riu-d with two young virgins and a youth, who 
went into the kiva The \ iri»m- and the young man were dressed 
peculiarly, being covered with symbols which showed them to 
be the persiui.itors "I the rain cloud. The virgins wore white 
blanket- and the lower portion ot their faces was painted black, 
a white- line across the mouth extending from car to ear bordered 
the black, symbolizing the rain cloud; their feet and hands were 
colored black, their arm- and h ^ , m zig zag of black, which 
symbolized the lightning The vouth woie a white breech cloth 
and e.igie plumes in his hair. These remained in the kiva of 
the Miai;e people, 'perhaps as person. itors i if the ram cloud which 
was to *. i mie i < Mi the filth day the Mute jK«ip!e fe isted and sang 
At midnight they had Min.; l-ur songs, when the rain slowly 
approa- Ik d. It came not in showers trim the heavens but walked 
over the earth I he water* wen- invisible- to a!! but Lelanguh 

Tin- people then panted their h»dse- and limbs white anil put 
on white blankets and breech <. loth- and tollowt d I.elanguh. who 
was accompanied by the "twin war hemes"* and carried the five 
large wands, or piayt r plumes, and advanced to the land of the 
snake people All the nil n had sunflowers on their heads anil 
carried torn and seeds of melons, beans and pepjiers As they 
neared the \illage the r.im began falling around the land of the 
snake ;M'ople, bit not ,];.<»n it After the fourth song, the rain 
began falling upon the land «>f the snake |>eopIe and the land 
was well watt icd The snake people wept tor joy. Then Ixlan- 
guh gave to the snake director all the cereals that his people had 
brought, and he was gieatly pleased and said. "You are indeed 
my father, you have brought us rain, you know the secrets of 
the r.iuis. the laud sii.il. hr yoi;is" Songs were then sung, on 
altern.ite y.irs t.ith*- west for ram. to the south, the east, the 
zemtii anii th" nadir, and mv«»» ■ itp-n-* wer-* m.iilf ?•• the cougar 
of tii»* north, tii'- be.»r «■! th»- west. \\\p badger of the south, the 
white woli !,»r tin- i-as". tin eagle it-r the heavens, the shrew for 
the ■ at tli. to niter ced-- for r.un 1 MTereiit colored corn was depos- 



THK WORSHIP OF THK RAIN OOP :i\3 

itcd and prayer plumes planted at the points of the comj>ass. The 
plumes carried prayers for all thirgs good. 

I 'pon leaving the kiva the flute people saw their women 
sitting <»n the hills around the village. The women wore white 
blankets and the children had white plumes, which were proba- 
bly the symbols of the rain-cloud. In a little while the land was 
abundant with melons, beans and other vegetation, though noth- 
ing had been planted. In this way the snake people and the 
flute people became allied. The personating of this myth in the 
drama of the flute society takes place every year. In the flute 
drama the flute people and the snake people both appear. 

V. The "snake dance," which occurs at the village of Walpi, 
is more interesting than that which occurs at the Tusayan pueblo, 
which was just been described. This is also a rain ceremonial, 
and is pronounced very ancient by Dr. J. Walter Fcwkcs, who 
says: "The reason for the whole ceremony lies far back in the 
jxast, but has become more or less obscured by the progress of 
time." The celebration of the snake dance la.sts eight or nine 
days, tlu ring which there are various preparations for the cere- 
mony, the preparations being generally symbolic of the rain. 
Among these we may mention: (I.) The making the charmed 
iiquul. [2.) Making the sand mosaic or dry painting on the 
floor of the kiva. (3.) The smoking the sacred pipe and the 
distribution of the prayer plumes. (4.) The beginning of the 
snake hunts. {5.) The invocation tc the four world-quarters. 
() 1 Introduction of the snake boy and snake girl, who were the 
pcrsonators of the rain-cloud. (7.) The snake race, which was a 
race through certain sand paintings which represented the clouds 
and rains, of the different cardinal points. (8.) The washing of the 
snakes. (9 ) The snake dance itself. In all of these ceremonies 
the dress and decorations were symbolic of the rain-clouds and 
• >f the falling rain. 

The most interesting of these ceremonies was the race which 
symbolized the j>assagc of the wind through the rain-clouds, 
though the washing of the snakes and the snake dance were the 
most tragic and thrilling in their performance. In this snake 
race there were about forty runners and about eight priests, the 
snake priests anil the antelope priests moving in pairs. One part 
«-f the ceremony consisted in placing the plank in which was the 
si-pa-pu or "place of beginning" on the ground near a shrine, 
each of the actors stamping upon it as thev marched by. An- 
other part consisted in the priests taking corn stalks and vines 
in tlu-ir mouths and marching slowly through platoons of the 
actors In another j>art four priests stood with crooks in their 
hands and with white paint upon their bodies at intervals along 
the trail made of colored meal, over which the actors were to 
run; near the priests were sand paintings which represented the 
ram clouds of the four cardinal points. The runners as they 



:;V1 THE AMERICAN ANT1QCAKIAN. 

pa-sed the priests and went through the symbolic rain clouds, 
were expected to strike the ancient crook, held by the priests. 
All -if this ceremony was a drama ti nation ol the history of the 
people and the njierations of the rain. 

The decorations of the priests and the symbols resemble that 
which was used in the flute dance, the young man and the virgins 
having exactly the same white garments and black lines upon 
tin Lice and body, hut the main difference was that the ancient 
iclics which had been used by the Walpi were brought into the 
ceremony. The articles used in connection with the ceremonies 
were symbolic. Anion); these were ( I ) "the snake pipe," on which 
was a rain symbol. Tlii- was smutted in silence. iJ.) Thc 
eighteen stone implements which were brought up by the ancients 
on: ..f the earth. . } ■ The fifteen bent sticks, which were called 
c ks -4 i Mi- plank, in win- h wi- Ihe hole called si-pa -pu. 




through which the ancient- ascended. (5 > The plumed prayer 
stick-, which were deposited 111 the shrine-. (6 1 The various 
sand painting- or -and altars. These sand paintings were all 
made in the same way. They contained lour rows of semi -circles, 
each row having a different color to represent the clouds, with 
/igz.ig serpents shouting from the clouds, two of them male and 
twi. of them female, with black |ur.tllcl lines to represent the rain. 

17 1 The sand painting referred to above was another symbol. 
This was placed mi mediately above the plank in which was the 
[>pcmng called St /•'if", which symbolized the place of emerg- 
ence for the ancestors of the people. The border of different 
color- was symbolic of the "world quarters ." Around the altar 
or sand pictures were fetiches of the animals of the "world quar- 
ters." which faced the figure- of the clouds This opening in the 
floor was suggestive of the creation myth, but the sand paintings 
were -uggestive of the sky and the operations of the rain clouds. 
thus making a combination of that which was below and of the 
world above in one symbol. 

|S 1 Another article was the "wlnzzer. ' which was a thin 
uo<i>!'-ii -'.ib. the face- ot which were decorated with zigzag 
band-; :hi» w.i- dipped into the charmed liquid of the sacred 



TUB WORSHIP OK THK RAIN-UOD. 



.W 



bowl, which symbolized the rain, and rapidly twirled so as to 
imitate the sound of thunder The snakes were not .so symbolic 
as the decoration of the priests and dancers, though the fact that 
they were carried in the mouths of the dancers and were kept 
from luting by the feathers in the hands of the attendants, made 
them significant perhaps of the lightning and the clouds, being 
i- cut ml led by the gods or by those who personated the gods. 




The decoration- <>f the Zunis and Hopis deserve attention 
in this connection M.tnv of these were symbolic of the rain. 
They are as follows 

(i.j The dance kilt. This was a symbolic garment, which 
had .1 black band with a white border running zig-zag through 
its center, representing the plumed snake, with arrow-shaped 
marks representing the foot-prints ol the duck, and short par* 
a! lei marks representing foot-prints of the frog, both water ani- 
mals On either side of this band were two sets of parallel 
bands, representing rainbows. There was a fringe on the kilt 
composed of little triangular metal plates. See Fig. 6. 

■ j.i Snake kilts were worn by snake men who carried, in their 



35f> TIIK AMKRK'AN ANTIQUARIAN 

hands, snake-whips made of eagle plumes. The kilt of the 
antelope priest differed from this in that it was a plain woven 
garment, hut had a border at either end which was ornamented 
with stcp|>ed figures, to symbolize the clouds, zigzag lines to 
represent the lightnings, parallel lines to represent the rain ; an 
embroidered sash was attached to the belt of the antelope priest. 
(3.) The decorations of the priest consisted of white, zigzag 
lines on the legs, arms and body, and the chin was painted black, 
the body a bluish color. lie wore a white embroidered dance 
kilt, held in place by a white girdle, and a white feather was tied 
to his scalp lock, a wreath of cotton wood leaves about his head, 
string of beads of shell and of turquois about his neck. He wore 
buckskin anklets and red moccasins, thus making the symbolic 
colors complete. In his right hand he carried a rattle and in his 
left hand he carried a bowl filled with liquor. On his right arm 
«'as a bundle of cotton wood twigs, in his left a plumed wand.* 
See Fig. 7. 

• \ I'i:*avan • rtrm in\ h.*> l»o n <ii-ii r.!>ni hv Mr \. M. Mrphenv in »h;ih «-. mc not el 
ia:n -\".iili"i» •i|i|i«'rfie<1 A titi-.imrr ■»! -in- .rut »!ab* •<! » *■•■! tarn- •li«pia\r , i. no which 
»rrc pj.filcil Jr^iuiis «li,. It irprr-rntr-i thr hL\ >\:\ u:tir« mi'lrr human farm* Some ol 
the*c ha-i Iji «■■» ■ ■»\rif«-| w.th ;n ?.•■». thrt«» h4«] .ir.l*--. aii-i rati •>:iiii-il« i:|>«in the ikirtt 
Mli:ih<iiM:i ihi- ti iil\ ill -I-M fi a>1 (4 •-« -ur r -.in li- 1 *» th leather-. M.!l othir* ha I a ra;n 
s>m»..ii attrn-ti"! w;th the jih.i.. ■ «vri.<> • . \:.l in la r% <nr ha 1 a singlr • itn plant aa.1 n > 
ia:n si\mt>>. .nc ha 1 ihi I. i'i.jii ? <r nt r ■ M\ ijte^*r<l an>l {*•< <ratcil with man* symb-.H. the 
1^' r >Mir<>i.tt)i 1 t>\ «li-|pr<! Uti ir* .tit 1 II, c run *\n,r..>. ul. i\r Ihr taie 1 he*c tablet* 
w«fr > Alt r>\ .() th<- htl.i. 1 \lt r .\ jl> <i.t thirty K l* nh » *rf -iti%%ni :ii »h tr atl'l l«!«e 
tun. -. 4iwlw!.> .!!«•• i.arr.i'<1 a - :anl ; I \ -I • >r n -t.*'**. th.% *h »intf that ttir iam fjd« 
v»rr«- pn»>iii f.r-i .in ] w >i«h.| v\ .t> !.i.ni4fi hrini(» 1 hr >laii< rt% at Ihr > ; t*c vtal: -txeii tne:i. 
*»■;■.«■«, it h... '; .i «i\ 4-- '' I i:i .i h-ir»e -h t I !.e pha . • »\ i^>-il >in theme laM >t« mii 
■i .i«'p \p *i i. fn If i rmt p.ii«« ■• tV#- i.» -i «.\>i i- ... »». Pi »rrr «t. .!u \ aitangci »<» aj I ■ 
i 4ft' ! : i <-• j. : < < .i ] ? .. . - I ! '. i * .i •. i a ' .ii h :, $■ » :.rt • 1r aii-1 -tu ah \ •■ tt.r pf" 4- uv 
. ? i.i » ri ;-ir i lit !i^ • ■ . ■ i :i i ,■ \i t ■ r J i • j» ir j» li|T in rxj-'i-- .1 ••g .f f 



ENCLOSURES IN WISCONSIN. 357 



ENCLOSURES IN WISCONSIN. 

Br T. H. Lewis. 

On the east side of Crawfish River, in Jefferson County, 
Wiscoiibin, and just below the famous enclosure known as Alta- 
ian, there are two other small but interesting enclosures which 
seem to have entirely escaped the notice of visiting scientists 
and others interested in such works; at least that inference may 
be drawn from the tact that hitherto there has been no published 
description nor even a local reference to them. 

The first of these enclosures is located on the northeast 
quarter of the northeast quarter of section 20, township 7 
north of range 14 east, occupying the end o( a spur or riage. 
It is well situated in a defensive point of view — the enclosed 
space being from 25 to 42 feet above low water, and not com* 
manded by any other elevation. 

The embankment forming this enclosure is from seven to 
eight feet in width, from one to one and a half feet in height, 
and is unbroken, there being no openings or gateways for 
entrance and exit. It crosses the spur at two points, the north- 
west corner being just beyond the loot of the slope, and on the 
south side it extends entirely along the foot of the slope. There 
is a projection at the northeast corner, and another on the east 
side just north of the center, both extending outward; but these, 
unlike those around the embankment forming the Axtalan 
enclosure, appear to have been constructed as a part of the wall, 
having about the same elevation. On the inner side of the 
eastern embankment there is a projection extending at an angle 
toward the north. Nearly opposite to this, on the inner side of 
the western embankment, there is a long projection which ex- 
tends eastward in an east of north direction. This projection, 
together with the main embankment, intersects an elevation 
two feet in height, which has the appearance of having been an 
elliptical mound, and from the manner in which the junctions 
were made it is evident that the mound was in existence previ- 
ous to the construction of the embankments. 

The length of the enclosed space on a right line drawn 
through the center and inside of the embankments is 315 feet, 
and the width through the center 200 feet; but all four sides are 
ol different length, and are more or less curved at various points, 
and there are some sharp angles at the southwest corner. The 
longest obtainable inside straight line measures 368 feet. The 
area of the said space, inside the foot of the walls, is 1.37 acres. 
The perimeter of the work, following the outside line of the 
embankment, is 1,080 feet. 



858 



THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



On the outside, beyond the northwest corner ol the enclosure, 
there is an outwork consisting of two embankments, which, 
from general appearances, were constructed with a view of in* 
creasing the size o( the enclosure — as an addition thereto; but 
viewed in another light they may have been constructed as an 
additional means of defense. Just outside of the southern em- 
bankment there is a second one which has a single projection oo 
the outer side, and which was apparently built as an auxiliary to 
the main one. 



* 



Fi € *• J 















/ 




1 



.» I 



° 9 



HMtaHh 






* ft 



On the inside near the northeast angle there is a small plat- 
form mound, which is built on sloping land. At the hate it i 
fiftv-three feet in length, the east end is forty-eight feet 
and four feet in height, and the west end forty-four feet 
and six feet in height. There is a short steep approach, or 
graded way, on the west side, which was evidently intended as 
the means by which to ascend to the top, which is level. 

In the southeastern part ot the enclosure, on slightly *)°PJf K 
land, there is a low platform mound which has six angles. The 
southeastern part of this singular structure is two feet in height, 
while at the northwest it runs to grade, the top being level. 

On the west side, in the southern part of the enclosure, there 
is an eifigv mound representing a tailless animal. It is thirty* 



IN WI80098IN. 869 

six feet in length, three and one-hall feet in height, and is un- 
usually smooth and regular, so far as the surface of the mound 
is concerned. This is one of those queer productions of the 
mound building period, wherein, for some reason best known to 
the makers, the head was entirely omitted or only a trace of 
that useful member shown. 

Southeast of the enclosure there are three mounds and a 
house site. One of the mounds is shaped somewhat like a 
coffin, or moccasin, and is fifteen feet in length, eight feet in 
width and one and one-half feet in height. The house site, of 



* / ***** 






>- 

* 

\ 
v. 



> / 




circular form, is marked by a slightly elevated margin, while 
the center is slightly excavated. Farther on, little south of east, 
on the same ridge, there are five other round mounds. 

There is nothing within or around the enclosure that can be 
called an excavation. Near the southeast angle the east em- 
bankment crosses a natural sink, of which there are others in 
the same region— perhaps this is within the northern limit of the 
"pot moraines/' A plan of this enclosure is given, marked 
Fig. i. 

About one hundred yards down the river, to the southward 
of the enclosure descrioed above, there is a second one. It is 
located on the southeast quarter of the northeast quarter of sec- 
tion twenty, on a low bank which is not elevated more than ten 
feet above extreme low water. The embankments merely form 
an enclosure on three sides, the ends at the northwest and south- 



360 TIIK AMKKICAN ANTlQlAKlAN. 

west angles terminating ai the edge ol the river bank, which 
forms the tourth side. The embankments are Irom six to eleven 
feet in width, with an average of perhaps eight feet, and are 
Irom one to one and one-half feet in height. 

On the east side of the enclosure there is a well-guarded gate- 
way or opening. The ends of the embankments slightly over- 
lap each other, and on the north side of the gateway there is an 
additional embankment (or wing), which leaves the main one 
and curves inward past the termination of the embankment 
forming the north side of the gateway. 

On the north side of the enclosure a tew feet from the north- 
ern embankment there is a large embankment which is now 
650 feet in length, but an additional six feet of the curved end 
has been destroyed by the caving away of the river bank. The 
west end, which terminates on the river bank, is twenty feet in 
width and two feet in height. The east end, which extends 
across the section line and terminates on section 21, is eight leet 
in width, one foot in height, and has a projection on the north 
side at the end, which is of the same height as the embankment. 
This embankment may have been built with tie ultimate inten- 
tion of enclosing a much larger piece of land, but it so, there 
would seem to have been a sudden termination of the work, the 
necessity for such an extension having for some unknown cause 
ceased. 

There is a low square platlorm mound within the enclosure, 
at the northwest corner, and not far from the river bank. The 
topis 7x7 leet, the base 17x17 feet, and it is one and one-half 
feet in height. 

The main inside length of this enclosure is 273 feet, and its 
width, to the edge ot the bluff, 1S4 teet, the longest obtainable 
straight line measuring 305 feet. The area, as bounded by the 
inside loot line ol the embankment and the top of the bluff is 
i.oiS acres. The outside perimeter or circuit ^905 teet, includ- 
ing the bluff line. A plan, marked Fig. No. 2, is given lor this 
work. 



The embankments lorming these two enclosures and their 
outworks were probably palisaded; for without such augmenta- 
tion the sides would not Ik* tenable, the embankments being too 
low to admit ot a successful delense. 

As to the builders, it may safely be assured that one people 
or tribe built and occupied all three ot the enclosures— the 
original "Aztalnn" and the two new ones described in this paper. 
This is indicated by the platlorm mounds, there being one or 
more within each ot the enclosures; and the projections along 
the main embankments also add strength to the assumption. 
Although there are none along the main embankment — barring 
the one at the gateway— ot the lower enclosure, there is a tingle 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. 861 

specimen at the end ot the long auxiliary embankment which 
undoubtedly furnishes a strong link in tne chain. In addition, 
the ruined effigies within one-fourth of a mile north of west from 
the old Aztalan enclosure* — a continuation of the Axtalan mouod 
system on the high land — and the animal effigy within the upper 
enclosure, on the east side of the river, also indicate that these 
pre-historic architects were the effigy-builders — that mysterious 
people who have left us so many specimens o( their peculiar 
handiwork. 

The surveys from which the information for the above de- 
scriptions and diagrams was derived were made October 27 
and 31, 1893. 

St. Paul, Minn., July 5, 1894. 



PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND. 

By Theodore F. Wright, U. S. Secretary. 

Dr. Bliss reports a great work done at Jerusalem during the 
past tew months. He has continued to excavate at the south- 
westerly side o( the city, near the English burial ground. He 
began at that point on the high hill above the valley of Hinnom 
in order to move eastward along the line of the ancient wall, the 
foundation of which he hoped to find in position. This expecta- 
tion has been fully realized. At the outset he found a good 
clew in a rock scarp which showed where man had wrought to 
make a foundation for stones. In his report which appeared in 
the statement for July, he could speak of only a beginning; now 
he can give a diagram showing more than three hundred feet 
ot digging. 

The difficulty in this work was that he was at a corner of the 
wall, where a bastion was found having at least seven different 
faces. He was at one time misled here, and lost some time, 
but now it all comes out clearly. A photograph gives some 
idea ot the strength of one of the corners. This bastion looking 
out oyer the valley westward and southward is exactly where 
it should have been to make a naturally strong position still 
stronger. 

Having digged around this "tower," as it would be called in 
Bible language, Dr. Bliss found a paved street leading eastward 
.md lollowen it some two hundred feet. It is a narrow way 
.m«: .ippearn »«> have been constructed by cutting into the rocfc 



•Hr ■ -t' ; • r J I » I'rrt. c\ i •» >f the \meti<-«n AnttqoartMi. empreoe* the opinion that 
• ■ ■ r \ " r r . ■ an*:? mi* m.thitj th it eoci'Murc »ete emjpc« lie alto meat tuot the exist- 
*£. <■ !r"^ ,t* !» nr n.lc to the o«»rihw*f«l, in he cemetet?. 



orf THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

and forming a drain in the center ot it f with a space for walking 
on either aide, as in streets now to be seen in the cify. Ot 
course this street entered the wall near the bastion by a gate, 
and that he soon found; but there his story ends tor the present 
at a most exciting point. His next report will show a marked 
advance it he can continue to work at this rate, and there is lit- 
tle doubt about that, since the summer is so hot in Jerusalem 
that his men must have had much to contend with. The gov- 
ernment appears to be doing all it can to facilitate the explora- 
tion and there is no cloud whatever upon the horizon. 

A beautiful piece ot mosaic pavement has lately been found 
near Damascus gate. Its pattern is an arrangement of birds in 
circular vine-like spaces. An inscription on the border shows 
that the pavement is the floor of a chapel built to contain the re- 
mains of Armenians who died at Jerusalem. No doubt there 
are tombs underneath, and these will be explored; thus the work 
widens. It is remarkable that, when workmen preparing to 
build a house found this place, the city government took 
possession with its soldiers in order to preserve it unharmed, and 
immediately sent word to Dr. Bliss to come and examine it; thus 
he was recognized as an official archaeologist, and it would not 
be strange if he were ere long to become to Palestine what 
Mariette and his successors in office have been to Egypt. 

May I make a remark on "The Stone of Cana, mentioned 
in the last number of the Antiquarian? No proof is given 
that the stone came from Cana except an inscription upon it to 
this effect, and then the suggestion is made that the Lord 
reclined on this stone when present at the marriage supper. The 

C resent spirit ol research in such matters is scientific. Proba- 
ilities are not enough to depend upon. People are very slow 
in coming to this, and General Gordon's inspiration is enough 
with many to fix the place ot the Lord's tomb, and many other 
conclusions are made as rapidly as Dr. Talmage would make 
them in addressing a miscellaneous audience. It is best, how* 
ever, to leave aside guesses and to ask tor proof when we are 
shown the virgin's house at Loretto, or the Cana stone at 
Elatea, or a piece of the true cross in many places. 



NOVEL I NTERPRKTATION OF THE SERPENT MOUND. M 



Editorial. 

A NOVEL INTERPRETATION OF THE GREAT 

SERPENT MOUND. 

The great serpent in Adams County is one of the monuments 
with which the world has become familiar, but concerning which 
a great deal of curiosity has been exercised. But no one has 
been able to solve the mystery which envelopes it There have 
been, to be sure, various interpretations of it, but none of them 
arc very satisfactory. The first interpretation was the one ad- 
vanced by Sqiiier and Davis, the authors of the "Ancient Mon- 
uments." Their theory was that the effigy perpetuated the 
Hindoo story about the cosmogonic egg; and the oval was re- 
garded as representing the egg The second theory was offered 
by the Rev. J. T. McLean, who held that the oval represented a 
massive frog. The interpretation which has been the most 
acceptable to the American archaeologist is one that is based 
upon the shape of the bluff itself, and the conformity of the 
effigy to the shape. It was a common superstition among the 
aborigines that when any object in nature resembled any animal 
the spirit of the same animal haunted the place. It was found, 
on examination, that the cliff in its general contour, and espe- 
cially in the exposure of the rock, had the appearance of a 
collossal reptile lifting its head from the valley of the stream. The 
point of rock is the head; the dark lip-like edge above is the 
nose ; the light un colored rock underneath is the white neck ; 
the caves are the eyes ; the projection of the ridge to the right 
and left represent the protruding coils of the snake; the rise and 
fall on the surface of the bluff represents the uneven line made 
by the serpent when in motion. The varied effects of light and 
shade would greatly increase the vividness of the impression, 
especially as it was situated in a lonely and retired part of the wil- 
derness; and nothing could be more natural than that the Indian 
should recognize in it the real form of the great serpent manitou 
This, in the mound-building era, resulted in the erection of an 
effigy on its summit which conformed to the shape of the bluff, 
and so brought out the thought plainly, the strange oval taking 
the form of the body of the serpent, and the altar in the oval 
taking the position of the heart, according to the conventional 
style of art which prevailed. The oval, in all probability, marks 
the site of religious ceremonies ; the altar, the place of sacrifice. 
According to this interpretation, the great serpent represented 
one of the animistic divinities, the one which was the most pow- 
erful, viz.. the serpent divinity, and was the embodiment of a 
popular myth. 



364 THE) AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

There has appeared, however, in the Bulletin of the American 
Geographical Society, a new interpretation, which is quite start- 
ling. It is advanced by Mr. Francis Parry, who has been ex- 
ploring in Central America, and who has become familiar with 
the symbol of the ser- 
pent, as it is seen upon 
the monuments and 
recorded in the codi- 
ces. His interpretation 
is as follows: "It is 
a monster figure of the 
god of the air, the 
great divinity who is 
more particularly hon- 
t orcd by the inhabi- 
5 tints of Yucatan, but 
i which may have been 
| universal in his sway." 
- "Placed on rising 
| ground, the oval first 

* comes into view at a 
c point which, on look- 
2 ing backward, gives a 
I. prospect through 

> which the stream flows 
I drviding into three 
i forks — the mystic 
.' : three." "In the rear nl 

> this, eastward, is the 

* serpent's head 'on 
guard,' m the shape of 
,i triangle adapted to 
the uv.ll in iront. The 
m.iin figure liends to 
•i.. points »l the com- 
p.iis .mil terminates 
in .i triple coil. The 
..•■: in f.mnd to be 
a far simile of the 
• •riinary "wind sign." 

Ii^enl savages on slate 
it N mucins winding of 
.i! i loud-form, and the 
n'ikii'Uii Mayj conventional 
lrt.mg!i' hi- a significance, the 
g!c li-is vuili /unis. Moouisand 
equivalent t>> the triangle on the 
the temples uf dxta Kica. It 




NOVEL INTERPRETATION OF THE SERPENT HOUND. M6 

perpetuates the sentiment of Either, mother and offspring, " the 
Hindoo triad." " Thus an unbroken connecting thread of relig- 
ious affinity is discerned, which extends into South America, 
Costa Rica, Guatemala, West- 
ern Mexico and the United 
States." "The multiple of 
three is at once visible in the 
three sides of the triangle, the 
three convolutions of the ser- 
pent's body, and the three 
coils of its tail." "Four of the 
sustaining principles of nature 
have been discovered in the 
mounds. To complete the ^ 
five it is necessary to include ? 
the oviform figure." This and r 
the circle were the sun em- ) 
blems of Central America. | 

He produces as an exam- 
ple a cast of an image in re- 
lief on a jade amulet, having 
the quaint shape ol a frog 
carved on it. "with a body ! 
in the shape of an oval, eyes 
in the shape ot rings." "The 
green color may allude to 
young verdure, and be also 
an emblem of water, thus 
bringing two germinating 
forces together on the amulet, 
heat and water." 

Now this is reading into 
the Great Serpent more sig- 
nificance than has ever been 
^iven to it; more, even, than 
the Hindoos gave to their 
mylhulogic creature, the Va- 
-ooke. The Hindoo myth 
w.i- that this Vasooke or scr- 
l»eiit was used as a rope, and 



ill. 



scd t 




tin- ni.ii.hine nr lire generator; 
that the twisting and turning of the mountain stirred up the 
waters of the sea. so as to discover the essence of immortality. 
Hut there is no account made of the triangle, the oval, the circle, 
the five elements, cr ol the triad in the myth, though the suastika 
1% a very familiar symbol in India and America. The author 
then speaks ul the cup-formed markings on boulders, and even 



386 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

refers to the compound symbols which represent the five prin- 
cipal divinities of ancient America, and to the higher sacred 
number, six, embodied in the double triangle, which, "taken in 
its world-wide and Masonic signification, is an all-embracing 
expression of Cosmos." He says the "ancient religion of America, 
as it comes to light, assumes nobler proportions and is Cos- 
mogonic." 

This is all very interesting, for it magnifies American symbol- 
ism, but wc are not quite prepared to accept the interpretation, 
for the Mound-builders of the Ohio Valley can not be put 
on a level with the civilized races; nor can we ascribe to them a 
symbolism which would be as elaborate as this gentleman claims. 
The number four was a sacred number among the Mound- 
builders, the concentric circle, also a sacred symbol among them. 
The four elements may also have been recognized by them, as 
well as the cardinal points, for fire, water, earth and air seemed 
to have been worshiped. But when we are called upon to 
adopt the numbers, three, four, five, six, as sacred numbers, and 
to believe that the "Masonic symbol/' the double triangle, was 
pre-historic, wc must protest, for this reduces the whole thing to 
an absurdity. If there was a distribution of oriental symbols in this 
country in pre-historic times, it would not be likely that these 
modern notions could have been connected with them, though 
the serpent was among the Mayas a symbol of the rain-cloud, 
and so far as this goes the theory that the Great Serpent also 
symbolized the same thing seems quite plausible. 



THE 8ERPKNT A 8YMB0L OP THE RAM CLOUD W\ 



THE SERPENT A SYMBOL OF THE RAIN CLOUD. 

This certainly seems to have been the significance given to 
the serpent by the Moquis, Zunis and Navajoes, and a few other 
tribes of the interior, and was probably its significance among 
the civilized tribes, such as the Mayas and Nahuas. But was it 
the significance which was given to it by the Mound-builders and 
the tribes east of the Rocky mountains? 

Now this is the question which we are to consider, but we 
shall in answering it first direct attention to the figure of the 
serpent as a symbol of the rain-clouds, and of the various 
ceremonies and dramatizations which were connected with it. 
(i.) We may say at the outset that the serpent was a symbol 
either of rain or of water, in all parts of the globe; the myths of 
India showing that he was there the great monster of the deep; 
the myths of China revealing him as the great dragon of the sky; 
those of Japan showing that he was "god of wells;" and those of 
the eastern tribes of North America showing that he was the god 
of water — among these tribes he always lived under the water 
and was represented as coming up out of the water, and it would 
appear that here it was the great spirit of moisture, or the water, 
that was deified, rather than the cloud or the lightning or any 
other jxart of the rain-storm. The character of the snake divinity 
differed among the different tribes. The rude hunters and savages, 
such as the Algonkins, Iroquois and Dakotas, made the snake 
one of their chief divinities, but represented him as in conflict 
with their chief divinity. In this conflict the serpent was a great 
disturber, who must be subdued by the chief divinity before 
blessings could be secured by the people. Among the Pueblo 
tribes, on the contrary, the snake was always regarded as a source 
of the best blessings, and his approach was always welcomed, for 
it was through the body of the serpent that the seeds and grains 
were poured, as well as water. Among some of the civilized 
tribes, such as the Mayas, the conception was, that the snake was 
a source of blessing to the people, but was nevertheless to be feared 
as a being of great power. To illustrate: We find the form of 
the feather-headed snake decorating the facade of the palace of 
Copan, also adorning the massive stone pillars which supported 
the roof of the temple at Chichen Itza, two of them forming the 
balustrade to the stairway of the pyramid of Palenque, the 
massive jaws projecting beyond the stairway. The idols in the 
temples in Mexico were covered with a most ghastly array of 
snakes' heads and fangs and rattles, with "death heads" in the 
center of them, and some of the temples, according to old writers, 
appeared like serpents' heads full of fire. Yet in the codices of the 
Mayas there are many representations of the snake as a loudly 



365 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

divinity. In this we sec that the character ol the divinity always 
partook of the character of the people who worshiped him, even 
when the same "nature power" was worshiped. 

(2.) The name of the divinity represented by the snake is to 
be considered. There were different names used by different 
tribes to represent the rain-god. Among the Mayas he was 
called "Kukulcan;" among the Chiccmecs, "Zamna;" among the 
Nahuas in Mexico, "Tlaloc," among the Toltccs, "Quetzatlcoatl;" 
among the Hopis"Halu!ukan;" among the Zunis,"Ko-!oo-wit-si." 
lie was always the same god, and had the same general office, 
and was represented under the same or similar imagery. There is, 
to be sure, a littlr confusion when we come to examine the sym- 
bols with which the different gods are decorated, for Quetzatl- 




coatl. the r.iin-gnil or air god ol the Toltccs, always had the 
feather- head. -d serpent for his symbol, while Tlaloc, the Mexican 
god, am! I luit/ilopochtli. the A/tcc god of death, were frequently 
draped Willi the serpent, the main difference l>cing that Tlaloc 
always ha I the spectacle eyes, hut (Juet/.atkoatl hail the cross- 
covereil mix- f..r his distinguishing symbol. 

(3.) It is interesting to note that the form of the uiake is often 
used in connection with the falling rain. There are several 
instances in the codice-i where falling water seems to come from 
the snake's body, and the association ol the snake with water is 
not unusii.il. Oilier figures are sometimes associated with water 
or falling ram. hut m none is the relation so constant as in the 
Maya codex. Here the serpent is made very apparent as a sym- 
bol "..f moisture. In the (',:/•- r Tr,;iitf the same god empties a 
jat •■! wat'-r up' >n the -vmSo! kitn. which is supposed to represent 
iii.ii/.- Mi-- hi.ids .tie always represented with the nee in 



THE SERPENT A SYMBOL OF THE RAIN-CLOUD. MB 

profile, even when the body is viewed sideways. The opinion 
has been expressed that this long-nosed god represents the rain. 
This is confirmed by the (act that in several of the figures there 
is a crooked feather-headed snake represented as drawn across 
the body of the god, and drops or lines representing rain are 
falling from the two, as if the divinity and the snake were in the 
midst of a rain-storm. The long-nosed god is probably the 
equivalent of the Mexican rain-god Tlaloc, but represents the 
Maya god Kukuhan. In some of the codices the divinity has 
the feet of a frog instead of human feet. The snake has the 
marks of rain falling from the head. The remark is made that 
the snake-god is not a creator of rain, but a powerful agent to 
act ujxin the rain, as the duck, Ka-ta-na, an animistic deity, is 




>v :-n* Ka> 



the one who interceded with the rain-cloud, Owow-uA, which 
causes the rain, the association of the duck with water making 
it a suitable symbol, as the association of the frog with water 
makes the frog's feet also a suitable symbol. 

The serpent is supposed by Dr. Thomas to refer in one case to 
an eclipse of the sun, as the sun in the heavens is surrounded by 
the clouds, and the great plumed serpent is in the act of swallow- 
ing it This is unusual, for the serpent is generally represented in 
the oxliccs as flying througn the air in the midst of a rain-storm. 
and is frequently decorated with the rain marks and has the 



!.,■ I- m 11 r m-iutl.. Ill t.»th-hkt ntvnt in upper u*. («) Infcl Mr muii 
;.;-ri, !.*<-. I l!,c top if ill* hfjmrl. IMtmbllo* ih* AUil or "ipe»j ihltXMf". (II 

:- ■■ r.*.r, i.., UM( The tit iiil.c.ymboloIdi.iBltuniotH")) th« -Mitm in 
tif Hit lU.du it ■■• ■Imood-thipad, ■od ra placad OB wrmrj put ol Ik* bod; 

i-il ftti Kparilf limb **• poucnol by ■ dlrtBJIj. Amoof lh» AlUO II 

•c r<r »■• > dirk ipni at glabm mrou-dad b> coaxaairlc drcla*. *■ ihW cast 
. .attt ... . .m.Il Joiutrun. bwBd*dbd<»bT*aS-tfcap*]fi a .r**1tl)r*cl* 



S70 THE AMERICAH ANTIQUARIAN. 

same or a similar crest upon its head, and generally the same 
open mouth. Dr. Fewkes has called attention to the remarkable 
similarity in these decorations and symbols as seen by him among 
the Hopi and examined in the Mayas codics. He says: On the 
the top it bears a crest ol radiating marks, which repre— t 
feathers. There are two parallel marks, alternating with other 
symbols on the body. The same marks arc seen on the mytho- 
logic snake of the codex, six in number, but set obliquely to the 
axis of the body. The head of the plumed snake is decorated 
with a head-dress composed of three feathers, which rise from 
the curved lines of the eye, over the nose there is a red-colored 
object enlarged at the end; the upper jaw has two teeth; the 
open mouth has red lips, and from the mouth extends a curved 
tongue. There is a vasiform object 
connected with the body of the ser- 

S:nt, from which the rain seems to be 
Hint,' in streams. These remind us 
of the Hopi pictographs of th«- plumed 
serpent, which is represented with four 
udders, from which the waters ol the 
world, according to the folklore talcs, 
are supposed to come. The feathered 
snakes in the sculptured bas-reliefs at 
Falenque are said to be marked in the 
same way as those in the codices, and 
in a manner resemble those of the j 
Hopi effigies ami pictographs. There 
are several figures of the plumed ser- 
pent Halulukan on a rock near Walpi. 

Jklow these is the symbol of the sun and in front of them is 
0-mifw-nh, the symbol of the rain-cloud. 

There were many festivals which had regard to the rain-gods, 
among the civilized races, in which the ceremonies were very 
analogous to those which were observed by the tribes of the 
interior. Dr. Walter Fewkes has called attention to one of these 
festivals, which he calls the "festival ol the water pancakes." 
This took place every eight years 

At this festival the statue of Tlaloc, the Mexican rain-god, 
was placed in-ar a pool of water, where were snakes and frogs, 
and certain men, who were Actors, stood on the edge of the pool 
and seized the snakes and live frogs with their mouths and began 
to dance, swallowing as they danced around the shrine of the 
water-god, thu> reminding us of the "snake-dance" and "flute 
ceremonial." Mr Fewkes says the Hopi celebrate a (east in 
ulnch "all the gods dance," called Kattina. The name of toe 
divinity gives the name to the djnee. The participants clothe 
themselves and wear masks and head-dresses. 

T:i- .iniin-t:- 'lei':- wh • wrre jiersun.ited here are, to be sure, 




THIS 



an 



difluuit Iran Bon pOTOMtM bjrtM Mratm Mbw^for ■ 

— ^«MlCfn 

at q— rtnw of the aky, 
rbjrfa 



eagle and mole, mre die godt of taadUfcp 



and are generally r cprew e to d ia the fi 

fetiche*, or by men who paraoanwa tbem. Than am, h u a a iar , 

certain aymbolic saacs oa which bulla . Mm, herds, beetles aad 




men di*gui»cd themselves in masks and coverings so as to 
resemble butterflies, beetles, bees and owls, and came dancing 
to the feast, thus personating all the gods, who are said to have 
taken part and danced. There is. to be sure, no snake effigy in 
this dance, but there was that which corresponded. 

Mr. J Walter Fewkes says that there are general figures in the 
Mara codices which represent human beings personifying deities 
and wearing symbolic masks of anrmsJ-gods. One of the 
strongest similarities between the Mexican and Hoof ccranceMsJs 
is seen in the colored masks ; those ol the Mexican being 
colored black, blue, pink, black with red flames, brown, and 
brown with white spots, — it*»st six ; those of the Hopi being 

Sfncrally white, blue, yellow, red, spotted and black. The colors 
flex, but the number shows that there was the same division of 
the sky. 

The masks of the Hopi and Mi ■Irani an kJcntkal, the teeth. 



*:TZ3Etir2Sr"' m " ■* 




372 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

lips, eyes, and feathers on the back of the head arc the same. 
but the Mexicans wear apparently whole skins of the animal, 
while the Hopi wear only the head. One of the best instances 
of resemblance can be seen in the Cotiex CorUsianus, in which 
we have the four rain-gods "Bacab," represented as snake deities. 
In these the head-dress worn by the human figure is the same as 
that worn by the snake. The peculiarity of the head-dress is 
that there is a long nose, a crooked fang protruding from the 
mouth, a scroll around the eye, and peculiar crest above the head. 
It is probable that the human figure represents the personal god 
and that the snake represents the nature power. The two are 
associated because both were rain-gods, for the mask is always a 
symbol of transformation. Persons who wear the mask are 
supposed to have been actually transformed into the deities they 
represent. The person who was to be sacrificed in honor of the 
war-god was dressed for forty days in the same clothing as the 
god which he personifies. The masks of the Moqui and the 
Mexican representatives are identical, for the teeth, lips, eyes 
and hack of the head are the same in both. The animistic 
deities are supposed to be the gods of " world quarters," and 
have colors which correspond.* 

( 5.) Another evidence is presented by the so-called "rain races," 
which prevailed among the Moquis. One of these races has 
been described as connected with the celebrated snake dance. 
A race similar to this is described by Dr. W. J. Fewkes as 
occurring in connection with a woman's dance called La-la-kon ta. 
In this race there were two cloud figures painted across the trail. 
There were girls, who carried on their backs cornstalks, melon 
and squash vines, and in their hands melons and beans. They 
were dressed in white blankets with black garments around their 
waists, and white feathers on their heals. They brought the 
cornstalks and vines from the cornfields and carried them to the 
altar, on which was glinted the figure of cloud ornaments and 
lightning snakes, before which were idols painted black and 
white, to represent the rain. At midnight they watched the 
position of the constellation of Orion ami the Pleiades in it, 
when the met heme bowl, the rock crystals, the sacred pipe, the 
sand-paintings were brought out and the ceremony of running the 
" rain race t>egun t " accompanied with singing. The race was in 
front of a line of women anil through meal clouds, but was won 
by the girl who wore the cloud garments. This race may have 
represented the wind rushing through the clouds, though the 
dress ot the runners svmboli/ed the black and white clouds. 

The four cloud symbols in this case were made near the kiva 
at the end ot the course. The final ceremony consisted in a 
• lance in which the thirty-six women took their place; these 

•','.'■ •• ! 1: " » • ! , . tftrri .»i--J r 1 f* r II j.. jrr «:m.!ar to th.tm ol Um 

\\ry j|,- *!. : M i\ i- !|r\ jie.': ? ir t . I.ll «• t » . ! »i If fC .mO If the NlUKftf. 



THE SERPENT A SYMBOL OF THE RAIft-CLOUD. 37* 

women wore embroidered blankets, some of them being white, 
with red borders, others blue. They carried flat baskets, which 
were symbolically adorned, and ears of corn, and prayer plumes 
in their hands. In this dance two women, who were priestcsess, 
appeared, fancifully dressed, having black streaks across the 
eyebrows, feet, hands and arms painted yellow, wore embroidered 
dance kilts and a long fanciful head- dress. The peculiarity of 
this dance was that the dancers stood in the form of a horseshoe 
instead of a circle. 

(6.) The effect of the rain-cloud upon the crops seems to have 
been symbolized by the serpent symbol by the three peoples — 
the Zunis, the Nahuas and the Mayas. Among all of them the 
serpent was the symbol of the rain-cloud, but it is generally 
attended with the symbols of the corn and falling rain, showing 
that it was a beneficent god and the source of growth to the 
crops. To illustrate : In the Dresden Codex we find the figure 
of the serpent coiled around the tree, which is draped, and before 
the serpent arc vessels with ears of maize, fish and other articles, 
which were probably offerings made to the gods.* In front of 
these is a priest draped in a peculiar manner, holding a decapi- 
tated bird in his hand. In the Codex Troano the serpent is in 
three of the plates, coiled under clay vessels, but the vessels bear 
kan (or maize) symbols. In the Codex Cortesianus, the serpent 
apjKMrs amid rain-drops, but bears on its back the long-nosed 
god Zamna or Kukulcan. It is worthy of notice that one of the 
names of the chief deity, Zamna, signifies "the dew of heaven," 
< r "substance from heaven," and it contains throughout the idea 
ot food or "that which sustains life." It is also probable that 
the symbol for Kan was freely used to represent a grain of corn. 

The Borgia n Codex also contains four symbolic serpents. On 
these serpents we see the feather head, the projecting spines, the 
circles which indicate the joints, and the ornamented tail. Near 
the tail of each is the symbol of an altar. Within the squares 
are four human figures, each one having attached to the differ- 
ent (>arts of his body the various symbols of the days of the 
month, twenty in all The head-dresses are ornamented differ- 
ently. In one there is an eagle, in another two crosses, in an- 
other a simple band; in the fourth, plumes and spiders. The 

*Nr<- I .Air I\ f Dresden Lodes, on page ,0 ° 

♦"v* n rr.M* >tu'iy >f the Manuscript Tr>»ano. page *9 

ir, c»i .». >f the three co.->red plates gt*en by t>? Thomas ta hts sjumogran* there I*, la 



ff-ll*!-!:. .». »n a heu'e of the priest, with a planting stick, to his left hand and bails 
?*.. u* ti .m t.im i.ght r»* a A mask rcaembong the head i4 a fox 



sarmoaatt the head of 
i'f ;»ifii In front ol the prest is a Urge «esse< resting upon s colled serpent Above 
tf.r *et»ci *»c tart* kan. or matte tymbola. il«iog the idea thai the vasnel was tall of cots. 
\ :>.»«- w.« n.atrc •%utt»>U. to >oe plate, is a bunch ol rerda. which symbolise water ; IB aa- 
other ;• • btr-l. »huh •> rabulues the suo. at the left of the vessel, ta Hate XXU. there are 



t«u Ionian hemes ta the act M falling, arms and logs sptoad oat. The lower ooe a 
•eate-i •• r»a«.o« rain tailing from between his snooldera. THeoe probably symbolise ~ta« 



tatn d ».B;id a* U*~»» radio* to the earth la the third. Plato XXlll. a squatting hasana 
hgure r.V'd* a u>ti h ;n ht« left hand toward the saa-blrd Horn. then, again we have the 
I >ur r,r:i.rt>t« as •«•:. at the c »ro planting symbofUed la a codes. 



374 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN 

serpent is a dragon, for it has forelegs and claws. It is the only 
figure of a dragon which lias been discovered in America.* It 
reminds us of the Chinese dragon, which was a cloud symbol or 
a sky divinity. ChaUhihuitticue , sister of Tl.iloc, was the "goddess 
of water." and was represented as a woman with her face painted 
yellow, her forehead blue, with plumes of green feathers, and a 
collar of precious stones around her neck. Her ear-rings were 




npjuisc with fringes, from whuh hung marine shells, and 
■ -..md.ils on her leet In her left hand she held a shield 
i leaf of a water-lily. Her names signified the effect which 
i produce*. She presided over thirteen days, and is the 
.in who »aml herself in the deluge. She is thr woman 



THE 8ERPENT A SYMBOL OF THE RAIN-CLOUD. 375 

who remained after the deluge. In some of the codices ?he 
is attended with a symbol of a mountain range, where the 
"storms arc formed," and is the "storm brewing" goddess. In 
others, the giver of beneficial and fructifying rains. In the 
former the eye simply shows the lightning flash, in the latter it 
is surrounded by the curved Tlaloc sign, or what is supposed 
to be the Tlaloc eye. 

The Mexican war-god Huitzitlopochtli is, however, sometimes 
represented as a rain cloud, and has the accompanying serpent. 
For instance, in the Lcyden stone the feathers, the shield, the 
snakc-bclt, the arrows and spear and the attitude betoken a war- 
like deity. The accompanying serpent also clearly denotes a 
ram cloud — the rain pours down in fearful torrent**. On each 
side is the death symbol. He is accompanied by Tlaloc, clothed 
in black and bearing on his arm a shield, on which is a symbol 
of "wind.'' betokening a storm and a whirl-wind. In his right 
hand is a spear- hurler or lightning symbol. In front of him is 
the idol or figure upon whose head the torrents are descending, 
and upon whom the angry Tlaloc appears to be venting his 
wrath, but at the head of this god is a frog-like animal, which is 
the symbol of abundant water. Bancroft says that the Mexican 
got! is a snake god The snake signifies, in one case, time; in 
another, war ; i it another, water; in another, the yearly rejuven- 
ating oi germ-* and blossoms; in another, the eternal divination 
of nature, "sooth saying." Dr. Thomas says that Tlaloc is 
attended with his four C/tacs, or servants, which are the symbols* 
of the four cardinal points and represent the rain-givers of the 
four quarters* Moisture is represented in the form of a serpent 
with a Tlaloc head to denote its beneficial and fertilizing influ- 
ence Tlaloc, who has been riding upon a cloud serpent, starts 
upon his descent to earth, bearing a vase filled with corn and a 
Yin* loaded with fruit, symbols of abundance of food.* In an- 
other codex "a snake-cloud floats along, the crimson lining 
indicating the e fleet of the setting sun." On the head stands 
Tlaloc, while he pours out the rain from the inverted vase in his 
hands. In another part stands a goddess who represents the 
mountain range from which the rains of the region mostly come. 
The ram flows out from the skirts and down the sides. The ser- 
pent though, the embryo cloud, is on the summit, through which 
the lightning is playing. 

In another plate two deities, representing the parched and dry 
e.irth. arc looking up toward the heavens, as if supplicating rain 



* V . .i<< !.a* *u > :.tm •iquttea t;j the museum of the L'nlteraity of Pennsylvania, oo 
*■ • »r<- - <-r *.«!>>.>. «. trnt. 4, with th>»« of the Maya codKe«. On one side ts the con- 
-<-t t.* lift; *<-1mui»* t the ««rpeoi <»r water -god. Below the rtm or lip ts an encircling 
»•. •. u -•. 7. 4rc «.i inr*!:n£ marked worshipers, three of them priests, wearing conical 
' 4 1« •• -r. a *; r% tr.r.r hr* J diets *>!<>roed with feather*. The priests bold a planting 
•' i .:;!Vr!.*nJ. I'.trt t »h. h Are weighted with stone rings. This vessel wo* paioted a 
' 4't t ! t f :i,mt *ftcf t'.r at>;c to the Dresden code*, and was probably a sacred teasel 



S76 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

upon the planted and sprouting maize, the emblems of which 
they bear in their hands. The lower figures represent gods of 
death. They have in one hand the bread symbol, in the other 
that of the sprouting corn. "The blue serpent-like figure with 
purple margin, is intended for the symbol of a floating cloud." 
Tlaloc rests quietly on one of the curves with a "chac," or 
"bacab" in front. In another plate we have the history of 
the plant and its struggles. Two Tlaloc figures are opening a 
hole in the soil with a pointed wooden stick. They are 
dropping balls — five (the usual number), which symbolise the 
five grains of maize. In another place we see a bird picking up 
seed before it is sprouted, a small fox-like quadruped seizing it 
after it has sprouted, and quadrupeds, birds and worms attack- 
ing it. In one case there are three worms, at different heights, 
signifying that the root, foliage and fruit were attacked. 

The figures of Zamna, one of the chief Maya deities or cul- 
ture heroes, frequently appears in these codices, in connection 
with agricultural subjects. The pictures represent that Zamna 
was the protector of the growing corn or its equivalent; for he 
has a parti-colored face, and is contending with the bird, fox and 
worm, which are the enemies of the maize.* 

Dr. Fewkes has referred to the long-nosed god which i> rep- 
resented in the Codex Cortcsianus. Me says of the thirty-eight 
figures, that four arc in the act of planting ; one holds a bowl 
to receive water; one empties water from a bowl; five have a 
hatchet-like implement in the hand; five carry a torch or brazier, 
two hold a mask, and tvu» a kan (maize) symbol.* In several 
figures the long-nosed god has the planting stick in the left hand 
and what appear to be seeds falling from the right. Three ot 
the figures have the squatting posture universally taken by the 
participants in the H<»pi ceremonials. The mask, in all the 
figun s. rests on the shoulders, and has the Miake-hkc fang, the 
crooked nose, curve about the eye. and the projection above the 
nose t The bodies are m metimes represented with arms and 
legs spread out. sometimes seated upon the body of the snake, 
sometimes falling from the c loud*, sometimes the snake draws 
its form across the body of ihe god. but generally the serpent* 
have the body in a quadrate figure enclosing falling water, thus 
indicating that the four ram gods of the world-quarters were 
represented This renurds us of the Tusayan sand painting*, 
in which there was a sun rioud and an aivompanying priest for 
each of the cardinal points 

Dr Seler says that one of the things m the ancient Maya life 
which is widely esteemed as the most necessary to existence W4« 

•*»r I ■■ -i a« St.. 1y -f thr Man^r. r pt Tr..-*n--. pace* to* i.-* 

• 1 !..« 1. n. rrru.tMf v-t 'I the I -rn n tht r»ea:l -•! the anahc t»| vhkh.accoediatf •*> ■*• 
rjttnfi tr.'-o the ( Keinaer* the H'-f n». the S:.-ut and -Ihri* he «aa able to pctttl?at« 
I 1 e r a* 



THE 8RRPENT A SYMBOL OF THE RAW -CLOUD. 377 

the beautiful Indian corn. Schellhaus gives reasons for considering 
the hieroglyphic kan as the symbol of the field of maize and 
points out many instances in which it was held in the hands of 
different deities. Among the Hopis, where the maize is the 
national food, the symbol is frequently used in religious cere- 
monials, and it would be a most extraordinary exception if, 
. among all the symbols used in the codices, the symbol of the 
maize should have any subordination. It is universally agreed 
that Kukulcan is the proper name for the snake rain-god, and it 
is probable that the figures of the long-nosed god can be identi- 
fied as the Maya Kukulcan or snake rain-god, and corresponds 
to Tlaloc, who is also the Nahua rain-god, all of whom are rep- 
resented in connection with the serpent and the rain, and are 
supposed to be the benefactors of their people and the gods who 
bless the crops of maize.* 

In reference to this, several of the archaeologists have recog- 
nized the world-quarter symbols in connection with the long- 
nosed god, and have concluded that there were among the Mayas, 
as well as among the Tusayans.a rain-god for each cardinal point. 

Our conclusion, then, drawn from analogies of the figures 
ami symbols which are found in the different parts of the conti- 
nent, is that the snake was not only a water divinity, but among 
many <>t the advanced tribes he was regarded as an anthromorphic 
divinity, which personified the rain, a conclusion which has 
been reached by nearly all who have studied the subject. 

We now turn to the analogies between these ceremonies 
and those practiced elsewhere. We have considered the worship 
of rain gods, weather-gods, gods of the different world-quarters, 
and of the natural powers prevailing among tribes of the interior, 
such as the Xums, Moquis, Hopis and Navajoes. We find that 
there was a similar worship of the nature powers among the 
various tribes and races of the southwest provinces, such as the 
Nahuas and Mayas, and that the analogies between them become 
more striking as we study them more minutely. Some of these 
analogies have been brought out by J W. Fcwkes, but there are 
others In fact, the resemblances are so numerous as to give 
rise to the question whether there was not a transmission of these 
symbols from tribe to tribe, those having the same occupation 
having adopted the same symbols and having worshiped the 
s.une divinities, though with variations of form and imagery; the 



• I • > ft; | . tut *\ {war* n the t'alent}ue rrr«M *.n the shape of ft cruciform tree, bat was 

;r>: ,_• t^' [rl»«i 1 %ut.t\ » L. »*e i>et%> »aal nature :• Mmbollted by the face* hidden 

* * t* • r*\. •> r t-rjik ri<-<« ■( the ■ t »*« At the tame time the rain ("d appear* in com- 

i...! .:. * t» t? i rr.a :r f i tr,c !,<.*•! ..f the 1 1<*+% contain* the face ul T iaJuc. the raia-ffod. 

at ..!».» .• ».arig* a o« k.4 c an.l a medal'tiim. the image <>f the tun rests upon the summit 

( f- r •«% n t'.r ! ici t a h ft. the Ooetiai. with pecaltar head-fear. The two priests 

%iau * fi > * tr plantv an 1 ne >l them utters an image, which may be a symbol of Hie. 

v r * .u •■ tJ Mr h f ao. \% Parr? eiplatns thtt in the following manner While the shrUM 

«»• rtr tr<l t Mr i ra *< - f the f.«d for the frmts of the earth. It was for mail* more par* 

t. ...id i* itt'rtl.tiui mrte gwm. a monument to »tooe of the valae set apoo the develop- 

kci !i*.f ^.t.^at. >n >( tr e :naixe The faces, he thmks, were portraits of taw priests, who 

virir tf.r»-fi!iKf* >f the ku*. a! -can, the cross. 



378 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

"secret societies" or "sacred mysteries" having been the channels 
through which these rituals were transferred. There were three 
centers of development — one among the Pueblos in Arizona and 
New Mexico, one among the Nahuas in New Mexico, the third 
among the Mayas in Yucatan, Honduras and other provinces, 
for the same symbolism is found in the three centers, and very 
similar ceremonials, the main difference being that those of the* 
Pueblos were very rude, as were the people practicing them; 
those of the Nahuas were very full of blood-thirsty rites and 
horrid figures, such .is were natural to the people, but those of 
the Mayas were full of the elaborate and complicated adornments 
as become the people, who were given to luxury and advanced 
art. In treating of the analogies we shall bear these peculiarities 
in mind, for the comparison will otherwise fail to have its proper 
force. We may say, however, that no other portion of the conti- 
nent furnishes so close resemblances as do these localities, which 
were occupied by the ancient Cliff* dwellers, the pyramid- building 
Aztecs, Nahuas and the temple-building Mayas. The region 
occupied by the wild hunter tribes and the agticultural tribes 
seem to have had symbols and ceremonies which were almost 
as significant .is those of the partially civilized, the thunder-bird 
being the predominant symbol of the hunters, as the sun circle 
was among the agriculturists. The serpent was also a common 
symbol among them, but it is a question whether the triangle," 
the oval and the coil were used by them, and, if used, they had 
the same significance. We may say that the serpent seems to 
have embodied the Scandinavian myth of tydrasil and Nidhogg, 
and it may be that the serpent in the southwest provinces em- 
bodied the Hindoo tradition of the world-encircling dragon or 
snake. 

• I !ic tv-tntf!** mi 4ft *. n i ■— 1 *%■».'■ ! -rn I tf.r M «j . « Indiana, a« I • *• fir 

«li.rnt!\ »i « ii ..fi ft-ittriy. -i.trrnat-ik* » lh tl •■ Mri»|««-il ?'rf •» «. » ?i ? « '* * •**• • »yiilHi; o( 
tl.r i . ■•• 1*. , *..• 1 U.c **■ ir-1 apa. >-% f tl.r uv Mi b H < t.4 1 - .ntf th-nk« ;t hfet the f ifce 
alt-i- Kr 1 I • !'ic U:i .u th'rr .1 >(«. It :■ iri^iiifir. h >»rvrr cat thr triaafular «pac«. 
I?ir *. fi .. ar ipa r. thi *tr|i|>ri1 |i* lam t an 1 1 '.«> ■■ r 1 «l!iiU. ar< •' I >v*l.J itt >D* tingle 

fi^ic i.ctit ■{ .in 4ii .rut |i itr-iv tr^c *l., ! *4» t4i<-fi f t ■ • m I fir i '. X-\ntl ng% an! it nom 
ii I 1 !• |i iMci iti I tt.r Miilrr I hrw art' *\ n?- \% ■! tl.r «:n. the ii<iu't. Ihr v.Bii. *axJ 
jTr:.4i ■■. tr.rraitr. I! * tl.e nr-M jir or-l t «ijrt^.rr :n nru rc-1 *r««ri 



THE NSW VOLUME. 879 



OUR NKXT VOLUME. 

Wc are happy to state that the volume for 1895 promises to 
be a remarkably valuable one. We shall in this volume give 
considerable space to the discoveries and explorations in Bible 
lands. In this, we shall have the assistance of the Rev. Wm. C. 
Winslow. LL. D., and of Prof. T. F. Wright, of Harvard, and 
hope to secure the assistance of Prof. Hilprecht, of the University 
of Pennsylvania, and of Mr. Isaac Hall, of the Metropolitan Mu- 
seum of New York, and of Dr. W. H. Ward, who has just finished 
a catalogue of the Babylonian Seals. In the line of Polynesian 
and Asiatic antiquities and races, we shall have the assistanc of 
Hon. James Wickersham, Dr. Cyrus Thomas and Rev. Dr. 
Kdkins. of China, and several others. In the department of 
Central American Archaeology we shall have the assistance of 
Marshall H. Saville, curator in the Natural History Museum of 
Now York, who will furnish notes regularly on Central American 
antiquities and symbols. We also expect contributions from Dr. 
I), (i. Bnnton and J. Walter Fewkcs on the subject of codices. 
In the department of Palcolithics in Europe and America, we 
have the promise of the assistance of Prof. Henry W. Haynes 
and Dr. H. C. Mercer. In the line of Folk Lore we shall have 
tin- assistance of Mrs. Helen M. Bassctt, secretary of the Inter- 
national Folk- Lore Society of Chicago, and Mr. James Deans, 
Rev. M. Kelts, and others. In the department of Indian Linguis- 
tics, Dr A. S Gatschct, who has been so long our valued and 
reliable associate, will continue his notes. Drs. Wallace Tooker, 
A F. Chamberlain, W. M. Beauchamp and others will furnish 
contributions on the Indian tribes. 

There will be a new and interesting department in the next 
volume, viz: that of Comparative Religions, to which we expect 
valuable contributions from some of the most prominent scholars 
in Kuropc. The editor in chief will have charge of this depart- 
ment. 

Wc hope that our patrons will recommend the journal to 
their friends and so help increase the circulation. 



380 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 



EGYPTOLOGICAL NOTES. 

By Wilmam C. Winslow, LL. D. 

Sixth Dynasty Soldiers.— How the Egyptian soldier of 
this remote period appeared, maneuvered and marched, may 
by seen by an interesting "find" in a tomb at Assiut, some 
particular* of which are described by an Egypt Exploration 
Fund correspondent at Cairo, in October. I epitomize Irom his 
letter: The battalion in question is in two squads ol forty figures 
each, each squad fixed to a wooden board, and in marching 
array. The first tquad are probably Egyptian*; the figures 
are ot wood, and are about thirteen inches high, with little 
variations. They are clad in a loin-cloth, white or yellowish in 
color, reaching more than hall way to the knee, while their 
weapons consist of spear and shield. The spears are about the 
height ot the men themselves, and are carried vertically, with 
the butts at the level ot the knee. The heads are bronze; the 
shields, eight inches from top to bottom, have a square base and 
come to a point at the top; their surface l>ears traces ol paint, 
some ot the lines resembling the bars on heraldic shields. There 
seem to Ik* no officers, and we may take the squad to represent 
the average intantrv ol that period. 

Egypt nan its "colored troop*;" accordingly the second squad 
are hlai k -**kinned, with scanty clothing about the loins, each 
man carr\ing lour arrows in his right hand and a bow in 
his leu. The arrows are lipped with flint, brought to a broad, 
smooth edge. Captain Lyons, the correspondent, thinks the 
latter Miu.iti In-loi^fd to the irregular lories. As each man 
marches looseU, the torty may have been a 'body ol sharp- 
shooter*. Hut tour shots to a man is not, however, alter the 
Winthe»terian method ot to-day. 

The white troops are taller, the black troops are irregular in 
size; the former toeing more like picked men and under severer 
discipline. 

A Twki.ktii Dynasty Boat.— An Assiut tomb of this period 
\ields a fine model ol a boat. It is five leet long and fi I teen 
inches broad. It i* fully dei ked over, and the after part ol the 
deck i> occupied by a tuo- roomed cabin. Each room door 
hears '.he portrait ot the owner of the tomb, with his titles. 
Five figures are seated in the forward cabin; two on the for- 
ward deik and two others standing in the bow. 

Thk Tkmi'lk ok Qlkkn Hatasu continues to be a point of 
absorbing interest in Egyptian archaeology, now that Dr. 



■QYFIOLOGiaAL MOTH 

is far advanced in hit work at that rite. He c ons ider s 
that the altar chamber m ha unique character throws a great 
light upon the "religious revolution" which occ ur red at the 
clone ol the Eighteenth Dynasty, and which was not so much 
a revolution as a protest against the too great power which had 
been acquired by the priests of Amoo as against the empire in 
general. The whole construction of the temple resembles those 
of Greece, and the opening to the world of such an edifice, even 
in its ruins, bids fair to oe an important item in solving the 
origin of Greek architecture and alt. 

Dr. Hagarth, oo the staff of Egypt* remarked at the meeting 
of the Egypt Exploration Fund, oo October *6, that coming as 
he had, irom Greece, and a study of HeDeoic art, he had been 
astonished by the extraordinary beauty of the work at Deir-cl- 
Bahari. He had never seen anything finer than the famous 
terrace of Punt (depicting the naval expedition of Queen Hatasul 
and now Dr. Neville had opened another terrace quite as superb 
in execution. 

No lets than three advance copies of new publications bv the 
Fund were laid on the table at the annual meeting. "Dcir-d- 
Hahari I" is the introductory volume to the books on the temple 
built by Ilatasu. These volumes will exceed anything yet 
I bv the society. Mr. Howard Carter's drawings ol the 



issued bv the society 

mural scenes are to be half the original sise. U EI Bersheh," 
the third volume of the Survey, contains thirty-five plates* The 
Archaeological Report (brockart) for 1894 contains a brief 
account ot our own and all other excavations made in Egypt 
during the season of 1893-94; an editorial report by Mr. 
Griffith on the general progress ol Egyptological Studies; a 
paper by Prof. Cecil Smith, on "Greaco-Egyptian Antiquities,** 
and one' by Mr. F. G. Kenyon, on "Greaco-Egyptian Literary 
Discoveries;** an article by Mr. W. E. Crura, on "Coptic 
Studies,** demonstrating the value of the latter phase ot the 
Egyptian language towards completing the connected history 
ot the whole. Tne maps have been brought up to date, and 
the illustrations consist of a plan and three views ol the temple 
at !>dr-el-Bahari. 

1 jcx me remind all readers of theae "Notes" that a single 
subscription of but five dollars secures this broekmrt* also the 
illustrated quarto volume of the season (or any other selected 
volume), and the Annual Report. No other archaeological or 
historical society, dependent on subscription, makes so rich a 
return. Only an increased list of subscribers can keep our 
explorers at work. 

Sir John Fowler remarked at the Fund meeting that the 
temples at Philae are now under the protection of the whole 
civilized world, and that there ia no longer any fear of their 



382 THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

being destroyed by the construction ol a dam to retain the 
waters of the Nile lor irrigation. But quite as serious a matter 
as the proposed submersion of Philae is the mutilation of sculp* 
tures every year by the tourist and vendor ot antiquities. Here 
a little, there a little, in the aggregate do irreparable damage. 



-o- 



NOTES ON COMPARATIVE RELIGION. 

Sacked Powders. -Captain John (J. Ilourke, in the ninth annual report 
of the Ethnological Bureau, has given a description of the sacred powders 
and bread offerings of the different tribes. His remarks upon the use of 
powders among the Apaches are interesting. The myth of the Apaches is 
that the divinity scattered sacred powder over the surface of the sky to 
make the milky way. Sacred powder is used by the Mexicans in ceremo- 
nies connected with the water deities. The Peruvians had a powder of 
different colored maize ground up with sea shells. The Ojibwas hail a white 
powder. The Aztecs threwja powder on the faces of those whom they were 
to sacrifice. The Omaha medicine men sprinkled the body of the sick with 
the poudcr of artemisia, supposed to he the "food of the ghosts." The 
Haidas powder their hair with white feathers, and the Iroquois sprinkle 
their heads with white down. The use of powder was common among the 
ancients of the East, among the African tribes and among the Hindoos. 
The /uiu use a sacred meal in all their ceremonies. They place it in the 
form of a pyramid, resembling the phallus which the Kgyptians offer to 
their deities. This powder was contained m sat red Urn Is of earthen-ware. 
They kept the air (airly misty with the < loud'* of it. K.verv morning of the 
year, at the n^in^ of the morning star, they throw cornflower to the sun. 
they ofler it tn thesun for got mI rain and good crops. The use of unleavened 
bread or water p.in< alee* was » oinmon among the ancient Mayas. They 
carried idol* made i»t dough m profession*. They made a wafer or cake 
which was divided tn a sort of (omiiiiinioti. 1 he dough idol was broken 
into crumbs and distributed anions the male* and bv them eaten after a 
manner ot communion. Idols in.uk' id dough are to Ik* found among the 
Mongols. The Permian* signali/cd the arris. il ot their mung men at man- 
hood bv a sort "t « onitiiuhmn. < nriMstitig of eating bread kneaded or mm* 
gled with the biood of \utmis. ami they al*o made use of sacrificial cakes 
made with the b'.imd ot human victim'*, which were to t>e eaten at a mock 
alliance with the Inca. Ph\!.utenc* were Horn by the Apaches in their 
religious « cremoines These phylacteries were made up of a piece of buck- 
skin inscribed with certain characters or *\mho'.s and worn by the Sick per- 
son* who were to be benefited . a* a secret or private charm medicine 
sashes and medh me shirts were worn by the medicine men. These shirts 
were made in the form ot the cphod. which was common among Jews, they 
were decorated with swnUiN of the sun. of the serpent, of plants, and other 
objects. The serpent* had feet like a dragon, the back covered with spine*. 
the head in the torm of a disk, with the symbol of thesun with rays painted 
on the disk. This is a novel form of a snake. There were amulets among 
the Apaches, on which are inscribed certain vine like plants which have 
hands ami feet and a crowned head, so as to make them resemble human 
beings. 



NEW 0I8OOVERI1B. MS 



NEW DISCOVERIES. 

Find op Mound-Builders* Relics.— The finds were made on the 
King farm, neat Portage, above Alton. Illinois. The owner in setting out 
some grape vines came across a few relics. Probably the most valuable 
find was a set of flint knives or dirks set in bone handles. The Hints are 
about four inches long, while the handles are about five inches long. The 
handles are of elk horn and are well preserved. Numerous earthen vessels 
were found. Some of these were handsomely decorated. A small copper 
ring was found. It is hollow and the ends are not welded. A fine lot of 
pipes was found, varying in weight from three pounds to an ounce. In color 
they were red, black and white. Parts of a big bowl were found It had 
evidently been used at a culinarv utensil, judging from its sue. tt is thought 
that the restored vessel would measure several feet across the top. 

Find op Indian Skeletons.— Thomas VY. Clark, a landscape gardener 
employed in beautifying the grounds of several resident* of Gross Isle, near 
Detroit. Michigan, has discovered a number of Indian relics during the 
past few days. The latest find consists of the skeletons of two Indians of 
mammoth proportions, together with two pipes of fine workmanship, an old 
knife, and two or three small trinkets of uncertain use, Out of the skulls 
fell huge bullets, which had evidently caused the death of their former 
owners. With these bodies were buried a large number of valuable relics. 
There were perhaps a doten silver armlets or bracelets ornamented with 
delicate tracings representing deer and other animals. Two silver rings 
were found, one containing an emerald and a garnet and the other con- 
taining a diamond. A steel tomahawk of unusually fine workmanship was 
found, as was a silver locket and nearly a quart of brass rings. The skele- 
tons are supposed to have belonged to members of Tecumseh's band, which 
enlaced in several battles in the vicinity during the war of 1812. 

An KxPF.tHTioN to Yucatan.— Mr. A. V. Armour has fitted out a yacht 
in New York harbor and will take a company of esplorers to Yucatan, 
While the party has not been completely organiied, it is settled that W. H. 
Holmes, curator of anthropology at Field Columbian Museum, and Dr. C. F. 
Millspaugh. curator of botany at the same institution, will be among the 
members. The entire expense of the trip is assumed by Mr. Armour, who 
was one of the original directors of the ne# museum, although he is not a 
member of the hoard at present. The excursion is made at his suggestion, 
and came as a surprise to the managers of the museum, few of whom were 
even aware that he numbered a Central American estate among his pos- 
sessions. 

Thk Babylonian Expedition which wss sent out by the University of 
Pennsylvania under Dr. Peters and Prof. Htlprecht, has been successful 
beyond all expectations. The report was sent by the United States minis* 
ter at Constantinople to the secretary of state* that Prof. HUprkht had 
reached that city with several tons of material which had been e ahum ed 
from the mound at Niffer; and that the discoveries which had been 



384 THE AMERICAS ANTIQUARIAN. 

surpassed those of Layard, Kawlinson and Hormuid Rassam; that the arti- 
cles were likely to revolutionize history and carry the dates back at least 
ten centuries before Christ. Prof. Hilprecht has been engaged for several 
weeks in deciphering the inscriptions and studying the symbols. He is 
expected hack at Philadelphia very soon. 

Krai'iis in Michigan.— The find of pottery, a stamp and a coin in Mont- 
calm county, Mich., described in our last number, turns out as we predicted, 
to be a fraud. Our correspondent, H. I. Smith, informs us that it is in the 
same locality where the remarkable fKrttery vessels containing Assyrian and 
Egyptian faces were found a few years ago. Is there no way of suppressing 
these operations ? They do not deceive arch.-rologists, but, nevertheless, do 
much mischief. 



■«>- 



HOOK RKVIKWS. 

i* t»t us and Srmttii tradition. Itv John I). Davis, Professor of Semitic 
Philology and Old Testament History in the Theological Seminary at 
Princeton. N.J. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1804. 150 pp. 

I2MIO. *l.~v 

The following sentence furnishes a key to the author's position in the 
hiMik "Che Hebrew account is the intentional perpetuation of the basal 
tloctrine of the origin of the universe; but the deification of nature and the 
itlontuatinn of the sun are |M»lytheistic amplification*." As proof of this 
the author cites the cosmogonies of people who lived a* ticightkor*; in 
Kir una, Persia, (irecce. India, Kitypt and Phiruicia. which resemble the 
>»eiiiiti{ tradition, yet exa^kjerate the a^'emy of the sun. though not one 1% a 
sun-myth. "Whatever Mintiiyth there is, is only an .imp! nation of the 
primitive tr idition Milt these have a i ommon origin, the transmission 
having liceti l»v tl.r Hebrew* and ll.ihv Ionian* '"from the hioken ami »rat 
tcrcd rrtn.i'tiH nt am lent .\-*vn.tn ami llalivlotnan literature that ha* l»eeit 

m 

rti «'\ eied .1 Mom of 1 re.tltoii. not.ihle f.n ts, striking rrseiubiamr to the 
IKhnw ;i. luijiii. Tht* position of the author, however, !<• that the scrip- 
Hires .in* the superior and in !•*< \ the only rch.ihle record of the creation or 
of \\w i.irlv cm htM'f iii .if. % h.-t<ir\ Prof. Wave's effort to ■ ontradict the 
aii.i!o^;i s helw rt 11 Sam honi ihi-n .ml t tic si riplurc rri urd is not success- 
ful. 1 • r -urclv . cirri . rik! ho» 10 ii<njn%h oiie\ self liom trees, generating fire 
\i\ fiit^nuti \wh»!, !i:.tki:i K ' h-its out ot reeds. cri^Ki.iMi^ hunting and fishing. 
«<>i. strut nu^' v !.i.u'C\ herding dink-* and making ships, at '.east, are very 
natural event" wl.sih ihe «u npturcs «lo nut deny. That an ancient cing- 
.tuiniio marriage 1* referred to under the lan^u.i^e about the sons of Cod 
and the daughter* o* men does not seem to hate otturred to the learned 
pr"!r-s"r, though 1: ma* he that the argument for the aninjuitv of the pen* 
tatem h. .1- Hinir.iMr! t>> :r,r the-.rv o! the higher « ritu s. would be stronger 
if th:s had been »;r.ir:!rd 1 he f.u » s that the si letu c of ethnology has not 
been tufti> :mtlv s!ud:rd v »v Sul-le ttudents. though its principle* are bee inning 
est.iS.isf.fii v> rap-.dlv tS.it th«v can not lie ignored. We do m* claim that 
the t.tnc h.i- tome tor the -wipturc record to tie ha r mom fed with these 
an\ more than with the i iiidaiucnt.il*. c»f k' eulogy, but we believe thai there 
is m> ci:iflii t Ihe di-« rep.m« ies are more in appearance than in reality. 



BOOK RKVIEW8 383 

The effort of Prof. Davis to work out the problem is certainly very com- 
mendable, and upon the whole satisfactory. He gives by far the beat view 
of the difference be t we en the bible and the common records of the monu- 
ments which has been written. We commend the book to our readers. 1 1 
is inexpensive, but very instructive. 

Studies m Ontntal Social Lift and Customs, From the Sacred pages. By 
H. Clay Trumbull. Philadelphia: Walters & Co. 1804. 

The survival of ancient customs and practices is the one thing which 
impress the the traveler in Bible lands. It is, however, not often that an 
author will seiie upon those customs which are so illustrative of primitive 
life in all parts of the globe and make them exclusively the object of his 
study. This Mr. Trumbull has unconsciously done, and so has given a 
book which is as valuable to the ethnologist and archaeologist, as to the 
Bible student. Take the following as an illustration: One of the unchangea- 
ble customs is giving gold and other gifts for a wife, looking at a bride as 
belonging to the mother of the bridegroom, giving the woman the undis- 
puted right to her personal possessions. These arc oriental and pertain to 
the patriarchal mode of life. In the system of matriarchy the man goes 
to the house or the mother of the bride, the children belong to that family, 
and only the personal property belongs to the bridegroom. The significance 
of the bridal veil is brought out by the scripture story of Rebecca and 
Isaac, hut it still survives, as does the habit of welcoming the bridegroom. 
The voice of the bride and the voice of the bridegroom arc still heard in 
the land. Veils are sometimes seen covering the faces in aboriginal pot- 
tery; d»>es this have any significance as an aboriginal custom? "The friend 
of the bridegroom" still survives. The laws of hospitality are also the same 
Lot entertained the strangers, ami was in honor bound to defend them. 
There i* a similar law among savages. There is one habit still extant which 
throws light on the ancient monuments. The most influential person can 
not t>e admitted to burial until a tribunal has sat to judge his conduct and 
acquitted bun. So on the monuments the person was brought before the 
divinity, and a scribe makes a record of the decision before he is admitted 
to the burial. Road-building is another custom. This was a royal preroga- 
tive and a symbol of greatness. Upon the whole the book is both enter- 
taining and instructive. 

( ertain Sand Mounds of the St. f ohm's Rn*tr % Florida, By Clarence B. 
M«>ore. Part 1. 

This folio volume ts an application of held notes by Clarence B. Moore, 
who has been carrying on thorough excavations among the mounds of 
Honda for several years. He excavated the celebrated Ml Royal mound 
and found not only human remains, but drinking cups made from conchs 
ifulgur*). and a large number of broken conchs, ninety-three arrow and 
lance joints, sixty-one celts, six chisels, two spade-shaped ceremonial 
implement* (cornplanter, perhaps,), pendants or sinkers, a cylinder, beads 
of shell, pearls, vessels of pottery with the bottom missing, oblong dishes, 
four small howls, colored pottery, copper disks, copper-coated beads, oblong 
sheets of copper made into ornaments, copper-coated ear-progs. The most 
remarkable finds were in the Thursby mound, Volusia Cosmty. Some were 
superficial, mainly consisting of an iron am. a gold ornament, a silver oma- 



3*ti THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. 

merit, and a deposit of pottery amazing in number and variety, representing 
forty-eight animal effigies, eight fishes, ten turtles, wildcats, bears, squirrels, 
wild turkeys, several otters, ear of corn, twelve acorns, sea urchins, concha, 
a dog, two hundred and ninty-two objects of pottery, four hundred and eight 
sherds. These were all rude, and Mr. Holmes thinks of comparatively recent 
origin. They are mere sports, can hardly be called symbols or even totems. 
The deposit was twenty-five feet long and six feet broad, was not more than 
one foot below the surface. The mound itself was a truncated cone, eleven 
feet high, one hundred feet across, and was built upon a deposit of shell. 
There was a mound at Cook's Kerry ten feet high, which contained a silver 
ornament and a gold disk, of Spanish origin; one at Kaulerson which con- 
tained a shell gorget, in which was an eight-rayed star with two circles and 
a perforated cro>s with a central square, the spaces around the cross and 
star being rut out. The most singular relics exhumed from the sand 
mi mnds were certain pottery vases or hemispherical objects which were 
open at both ends, the use of which is proving a puzzle to archa-ologists. 
The pntterv which was placed in the burial mounds, with the exception of 
the hgurine ettigies, was broken, perhaps to prevent robbery (or to let the 
soul out). Sherds and fragments were buried with bodies instead of whole 
vessels (or the same reason they were. The work which Mr. Moore has 
done in Florida has been most thorough, and the manner of publishing 
most elegant. the> are models uf scientific work which will not fail to be 
admired by all arch.iologtsts. 

./»/■/ \*pp*r from thf MsunJ\ >*t the Si. Jt kn i Rivt-r. fr'frfui*. Reprinted 
from Tart II. Hy Clarence ll. Moon* Journal uf A» ademy of Natural 
Science, of Philadelphia. Vol. V 

The analysis of the copper re. us from the mounds reveals the great 
diffcrcm c between pre-Columbian and |>ost Columbian specimens. The 
latter articles are reallv brass, rather than pure copper, for they have a 
slight alloy <if silver, lead ami other materials The pre-Columbian have 
no such alloys, but average above ninety, nine per cent of pure copper. 
According to this analysis the majority of the « upper relics from the St. 
John'-. Kiver, Honda, arc prch-.stom , but those from some of the Ohio 
mounds .ire somewhat doubtful. A fragment of a breast plate from the 
Hopewell mounds. < >hm. was oidv ninety six and thirty one-hundredth* per 
cent. Aii implement of topper furnished bv W. K. Moorehcad and live 
sheets ••! copper from (ierard r milke averaged over n:nctv nine. Copper 
rivets fr»m New York vary lioiu nsnetv-seven to mnetv eight per cent. 
Copper from Lake Superior vanes tiom ninety to ninety -nine per cent, and 
has silver present. The copper from the stone graves, of which I $.000 
spe« :mens have Ik: en found, is generally pure enough to lie pre Columbian. 
Another pe> uliarity of the • opper *pei .mens from Honda is the invariable 
lack of iiuf'Tiniiv in s;;r. shape .md ornamentation. I'hev contrast in this 
respei ! with the 1 opper rein s !r<>ui the Hopewell mounds, for a large nam* 
l>er ■■! thrse were idct.!i« a. :t» shape. 

I.s'tsn .it tent l-'f\pt I >es« ribed \>\ Ad-dph irman . translated by H. M. 
I.r.inV wi:h 1. j :.us<r.iti<>!is ::• the let:, and eleven plates. London 
,i:.«l New \ or* Mai Milian fc \ \. o. l**A- 

I h.s s a beau: if -i! boo* .n, d >>ne wh:« h will interest ail arch.ro log ist*. It 
t-r.i.k.'" the m:: e t of Ivy ptoiuo up to \\a\c and is very valuable on that